Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada

Introduction The initial contact of Europeans with North America can to a large extent be credited to the 15th century explorer, Christopher Columbus. He discovered the North American continent and reported his findings to the king and Queen of Spain. His depiction of the land as possessing many riches and habouring a timid people no doubt contributed to the enthusiasm with which future voyages to these lands were made.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Over the course of the next four centuries beginning from the 15th century, many European nations were involved in widespread exploration of The North American continent. These expeditions resulted in significant changes in the local traditions as the new arrivals settled and traded with the natives. This new relationship between the North American natives and the Europeans led to an offsetting of the balance that had once existed among the people with far reaching consequences over the years. Brown and Sides note that this contact which began amicably as a trade relationship ended up with the destruction of the once powerful tribes of the Pequot, Narragansett, Mohicans and many other Native Northern American Tribes (1). Monumental changes occurred to the lives of the First nations of Canada as a result of their contact with Europeans. This paper shall set out to give a detailed description of the significant changes that arose as a result of this contact. This paper shall also investigate the means by which the traditions and cultures of the First Nations managed to survive despite the assault on them by the Europeans. The significance of a lack of writing traditions by the First Nations to the preservation of their history shall also be explored. It is hoped that this discussions shall lead to a greater understanding of the First Nations people and especially the significance of their encounter with the Europeans. First Nations Encounter with Europeans The Ojibway Historic Organization notes that the Ojibway and Lakota people are a part of a large linguistically related group of Native Americans and First Nation people who are collectively referred to as the â€Å"Algonquin† which loosely translates to â€Å"Family† (Ojibway Organization). These natives occupied the parts of Canada extending from Saskatchewan to Southern Ontario. The land was viewed by the First Nations as a gift form the Great Spirit and as such, the land belonged to every member of the tribe. The native inhabitants of the Northern American land came to be called â€Å"Indians† mostly as a result of the misclassification by the Spanish explorer, Christopher Columbus on his discovery of the New World.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The first Europeans to venture into the land of the Ojibway were the French explorers and missionaries. Schell documents that the French explorers and missionaries were the only Europeans acquainted with the wild regions of North America as many considered the land too wild and dreary at all seasons to be made a permanent home by the civilized men (162). This explorers and missionaries sent home reports of the huge great lone land that they had encountered. Due emphasis was placed on the abundance of a great variety of fur-bearing animals such as the bear, wolf and lynx. The great rivers and lakes which formed a natural highway into the more remote parts of the continent also made it easy for the early explorers, missionaries and traders alike to venture deeper into the American Indians native land (Schell 163). Result of First Nations Contact with Europeans Increased trade was one of the major outcomes of the interaction between the First Nation and the Europeans. The native tribes of the fa r north were a peaceful people and they were friendly towards the white traders with home they cane into contact with. The commercial relationship that was proposed was accepted wholeheartedly since it was perceived to be advantageous to the First Nation. The primary good that was desired by the Europeans was fur and to this end, fur companies were established by the Europeans which operated throughout the vast territory of North America. Schell records that the Hudson’s Bay Company based in London and the North West Fur Company of Montreal were the first European agencies established to exploit the trading opportunities afforded by the American continent. The new trade relationship between the Europeans and the First Nation people led to a reliance on foreign commodities by the Natives. More time was therefore dedicated to the securing of fur and its subsequent preparation for the new trade. This led to an erosion of other activities such as pottery making, basket weaving an d embroidery practices which had been an inherent part of life of the Ojibway and Lakota people (Ojebwe Organization) Inevitably, as the trade advanced, there arose a greater demand for the fur products by the Native tribes. On the other hand, the European traders who were made up of mostly French, Dutch and British nationals wished to have a greater share of the products from the Natives. The Europeans formed great companies to further their trade interests and ventured deeper into the Ojibway and Lakota people’s land as their sought trade commodities. The developing trade rivalries among the Europeans led to European groups allying themselves with different Indian groups so as to safeguard their business interests.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Europeans pressured their business â€Å"allies† to ve nture into new hunting territories so as to provide a steady supply of fur. This led to war among tribes as they competed for the dwindling fur-bearing animals. The European allies not only encouraged these wars but they also equipped their native friends with weapons to given them an advantage in the confrontations. As has been stated in this paper, among the early European visitors were missionaries. As was the norm, the primary objective of the missionaries was to spread the white man’s religion, Christianity, to the heathen natives. In the pre-contact years, the Indians did not practice any one major religion as a people. However, this did not mean that the people were godless as they believed in a creator and had their creation stories. Owing to the perception of the Native Indians as heathens, the Europeans set out to convert them into their Christian faith. This was to be followed by an initiation into the ways of the Europeans which was considered to be civilized as o pposed to the barbaric ways of the Natives. Missionaries engaged in the preaching of the gospel which resulted in the conversion of a significant number of the Native Americans (Schell 118). While conversion into Christianity did give the Natives some measure of dignity in the face of the Europeans, it did not lead to their being treated as equals as they were still exploited and their land taken over. From the very onset of the contact with the Europeans, the Natives of America were abducted and taken off to the lands of the Europeans as â€Å"specimen†. Columbus in his famous expeditions is said to have â€Å"kidnapped ten of his friendly Taino hosts and carried them off to Spain† (Brown and Sides 1). Here, it was hoped that the natives would be taught of the white man’s ways and especially his religion since they were observed to be a heathen tribe. While the initial contact with Europeans was a peaceful process, it gradually degenerated to untold violence as the Europeans demanded more from the First Nations. Of all the European nations that made contact with the First Nation, the Spaniards left an especially murderous legacy. The Spanish in their quest for gold and gems undertook indiscriminate raiding and plundering of the native’s villages. This led to the natives putting up fights for survival against the White man. Most of this fights turned out fatal for the First Nation as their weaponry was outmatched by the European guns. Brown and Sides suggest that the slow speed of communication between the Native tribes in North America was partly responsible for the ill effects of the encounter with Europeans since news of the barbarities of the Europeans did not reach other tribes from their neighbors’ in time (2).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result of this lack of communication, thousands of villages were destroyed and villagers exterminated. Their sites of worship were plundered and burnt and the people enslaved. To give a feeling of the effect that the confrontation in battle between the Europeans and the Native Americans, Brown and Sides cite Tecumseh who laments: Where today are the Pequot? Where are the Narragansett, the Mohican, the Pokanoket, and many other once powerful tribes of our people? They have vanished before the avarice and the oppression of the White Man, as snow before a summer sun. (1) Slavery was one of the darkest realities of the European contact. While slavery was operational among the Native Indians in the pre-contact years, it became rampant after the arrival of Europeans. In the pre-contact era, Slaves were mostly made up of captives taken in attacks upon enemies whereby the captives were brought to the home villages and used as laborers. The Indian slave trade increased enormously with t he European presence as Europeans undertook slave hunting expeditions or encouraged the Indians to raid their enemy tribes for captives. These captives would then be exchanged for goods such as whiskey, guns and clothes (Rodriguez 37). An increase in slavery had the effect of not only lowering the population of the Natives but also bringing about mistrust and fighting amongst natives, most of whom had coexisted peacefully before the contact with Europeans. This is because most tribes set out to arm themselves and later on conduct raids on their neighbors so as to sell them off to the Europeans. Despite the contact with Europeans leading to the raising of the standards of living for the North American natives in the initial years, this contact also led to large number of deaths due to diseases. These diseases were brought by the Europeans who surprisingly enough did not seem to succumb to the diseases as easily as the Natives did. As such, European infectious diseases such as measles , mumps and smallpox continued to take their toll on the Native Americans leading to large number of deaths (Francis 218). Thornton notes that: In any event, Native Americans lacked prior exposure to disease from Europe and Africa such as smallpox and measles which typically confer lifelong immunity on anyone who recovers from them. (21) It is theorized that these diseases were some of the factors that led to the relatively easy invasion of the First Nations by the Europeans since the disease led to a significant reduction of the Native population as well as the weakening of the spirit of the Natives leading to a resignation to their fate in the hands of the Europeans. Another feature that came about as a result of contact with the European is that the Aboriginal people of North America were deprived off their land. Oommen notes that the earliest settlers of the Northern America were gradually displaced from most of their ancestral territory and bundled off to reserves (95). The Fir st Nations resented this and put up spirited fights to try and defend their land. However, their efforts did not succeed since the Europeans were better armed. In the end, the Natives were striped off citizenry to their land and it was not until the early 20th century, approximately 500 years after contact, that the Aboriginals were granted citizenship in Canada and the USA. Survival of the First Nations Traditions and Culture In the pre-contact years, the First Nation people lived in relative isolation from one another over the great stretch of the land. Numerous bands undertook independent hunting expeditions and fishing trips since the land was peaceful. However, as a result of contact with the Europeans, large groups of Indian people grouped together and formed unions so as so strengthen their positions. In 1579, the Ojibway and Dokata people made an alliance so as to strengthen their position against the other Eastern tribes which were becoming powerful as a result of the guns and knives obtained from their trade with the Europeans. This change in the communal structure aided the survival of the First Nation and therefore the survival of their traditions and cultures which they continued to practice through the years. Another factor that has contributed to the preservation of the culture of the Ojibway and Lakota is the spirit of oneness that is engendered by the Aboriginal people. This view is best articulated by Thornton who suggests that â€Å"kinship might even be the essence of individual identity for Native Americans† (134). This kinship which places great emphasis on family and community is the bound that has held the Native Americans together through the years of turmoil in the hands of the Europeans. The First Nation tribes were kin to preserve their traditional ways of life even as the Europeans sought to convert them into their alleged civilized ways of life. The role that oral history and tradition has played in the preservation of the traditions and culture of the First Nations cannot be overstated. Since the First nation lacked the means to record their history, it is plausible that their culture and tradition would have been completely lost as they were uprooted from their Native homelands by the Europeans and forced to abandon their ways for the ways of the white man. However, despite these occurrences, the Natives continued to pass on the stories of their traditions to their children through generations. Crowshoe and Eagle who are modern day Native Americans confirm the power of oral tradition in preserving their culture by stating that â€Å"as we listen to our stories, speak our language, sing our songs, and participate in our traditional societies, we gain insight and extract the understanding we need to live well and keep our ways alive†. (Four Directions Teachings) Effects of Lack of Written Traditions by the First Nations The First Nations who form the Aboriginal groups within North America did n ot have a symbolic system of writing up until recent centuries. This implies that they had no method of documenting and preserving their own cultural history. The history of the Ojibway and Lakota was contained in their oral and traditional history. Oral history is made up of stories of significant events such as migration, wars and epidemics while oral tradition represents folklore that makes reference to legends, myths and stories held sacred by a people. Wilson notes that the Ojibway and Lakota history was contained both in the oral history and oral tradition (27). She further expounds that there was a clear understanding among the people of what passes for folklore and what was considered a historic truth. As a result of the lack of symbolic writing system by the First Nations, most of what is learned today about this people has been written by anthropologists. The lack of a written history by the First Nations has affected the level of knowledge that exists today. This is becau se most of the accounts given about the First Nations were from outsiders who did not understand the culture of the people and normally took events out of context or viewed them with bias. For example, there exist scattered references in historical records on the role of women in the Ojibway economy. Nichols notes that due to the frequency with which women engaged in hard and heavy work, some observes began to fashion an image of the Ojibway woman as a burden bearer and in essence a slave to men who were engaged in hunting, chiefhood and other flamboyant roles (30). While the assertions about the economic role of the women of the First Nations was right, the historical recording greatly distorts the status of women in the traditional culture. This was because the writer’s ideal of women stemmed from the privileged classes of Europe who were frail dependent people in need of male protection. Comparison between the content of this course and the Elder’s teachings The Fou r Direction Teachings is a website that is dedicated to the celebration of â€Å"indigenous oral traditions by honoring the process of listening with intent as each elder shares a teaching from their perspective† (Four Directions Teachings). This website places great emphasis on the oral traditions of the Aboriginals and tries to emulate the manner in which information was passed by the First nation. This course on Native-American Studies on the other hand places a greater emphasis on the work of anthropologists and historians who have documented the history of the Aboriginal people through the centuries. Owing to the differing bias between the teachings at the fourdirectionsteachings.com website and this course, there are similarities as well as differences from the content of the two. The Four Directions Teachings demonstrated that the Ojibway and Lakota people had an instructional approach for teaching their children through storytelling which encompassed methods of observ ation and direct involvement (Wilson 27). This is evident from the manner in which the narrator personalizes the story by using terms like â€Å"I’ve been told ever since I was a young girl by my parents†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Four Directions Teachings).The stories would therefore be expected to have differing versions depending on the teller. This is in contrast to the contents of this course which have been written in an objective manner. There is no personalization of events as each is told in a clearly objective manner. Another significant difference arises from the reasons that the teachings were given by the Aboriginal people. From the content of the stories, it is clear that a major role of the narratives was to enable people to attain and retain a good moral value that would then be passed on to subsequent generations. This is contrary to the contents of this course which are not aimed at propagating any moral teachings. Contrary to this, the contents of this course are aime d at providing a historically accurate depiction of the First Nations and their way of life. As such, the content of this course are devoid of any moral overtones that are the major characteristic of the stories that are present in the teachings of the elder’s website. For all their differences, there exist similarities between the elder’s teachings and this course’s contents. The fact that the Native Indians were a peaceful people who believed in the equality of all people and the spirit of brotherhood is a concept that is shared by both the content of this course and the Four Directions Teachings. This is contrasted with the European’s philosophy which emphasized the dominion of the white man over the world. As such, both sources record how the Indians welcomed the Europeans with hospitality as they would their own brothers. Conclusion This paper set out to give a detailed account of what resulted from the First Nations of Canada’s contact with t he European. The paper began by giving a brief overview of the First nation tribes so as to shed light to their ways of life in the pre-contact years. From the discussions presented herein, it is clear that the immediate result of contact between the Europeans and the First Nations was increased trade activities which resulted in abandoning of the First Nations previous ways of lives. However, it has been demonstrated that the results of this contact were mostly negative to the First Nations who not only lost their land but were also sold into slavery and exposed to diseases which led to the rapid decrease in their population. As a result of lack of a writing tradition by the Natives, the paper has highlighted how the history of their traditions has at times been misrepresented as a result of ignorance by the European historians. Despite the great atrocities that the Native Indians were subjected to, this paper has discussed the means by which the First Nations people were able to p reserve their culture and tradition to the present times. Today, these traditions and cultural ways remain unknown to most of the descendants of the great Native tribes of North America. However, their preservation has meant that the history of this people will never disappear as it would have if the Natives had failed to ensure its survival in the earlier years. While it cannot be disputed that most of the contact with the Europeans led to great wrongs against the First Nation, it was this interaction that led to the formation of the formation of the great North American nations of Canada and the USA. Works Cited Brown Dee and Sides Hampton. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: The Illustrated Edition: An Indian History of the American West. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009. Four Directions Teachings. Aboriginal Online Teaching and Resource Center. 2006. Web. http://fourdirectionsteachings.com/transcripts.html Francis, R. et al. Journeys: A History of Canada. Cengage Learning, 200 9. Nicholas, Rogers. The American Indian: past and present. VNR AG, 1986. Ojebwe Organization. More Ojibwe History. 2010. Web. http://www.ojibwe.org/home/pdf/More_Ojibwe_History_Summary.pdf Oommen, T. Citizenship, Nationality, and Ethnicity: Reconciling Competing Identities. Wiley-Blackwell, 1997. Schell, J. In the Ojibway Country: A Story of Early Missions on the Minnesota Frontier. Read Books, 2008. Thornton, Russell. Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1998. Wilson, W. Remember This! Dakota Decolonization and the Eli Taylor Narratives. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005. This essay on Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada was written and submitted by user Dangelo Ryan to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Daeodon (Dinohyus) - Facts and Figures

Daeodon (Dinohyus) - Facts and Figures Name: Daeodon; pronounced DIE-oh-don; also known as Dinohyus (Greek for terrible pig) Habitat: Plains of North America Historical Epoch: Miocene (23-5 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 12 feet long and one ton Diet: Omnivorous Distinguishing Characteristics: Large size; quadrupedal posture; long, narrow head with bony warts    About Daeodon (Dinohyus) Chalk up another cool name thats been lost to the technicalities of science: the giant prehistoric porker formerly, and fittingly, known as Dinohyus (Greek for terrible pig) has now reverted back to an earlier moniker, the far less awesome Daeodon. Tipping the scales at a full ton, this Miocene pig was roughly the size and weight of a modern rhinoceros or hippopotamus, with a broad, flat, warthog-like face complete with warts (actually fleshy wattles supported by bone). As you might already have guessed, Daedon was closely related to the slightly earlier (and slightly smaller) Entelodon, also known as the Killer Pig, both of these genera  huge, opportunistic, omnivorous mammalian megafauna, the former native to North America and the latter to Eurasia. One odd feature of Daeodon was its nostrils, which were splayed out toward the sides of its head, rather than facing forwards as in modern pigs. One possible explanation for this arrangement is that Daeodon was a hyena-like scavenger rather than an active hunter, and needed to pick up scents from as wide a range as possible in order to home in on already-dead and rotting carcasses. Daeodon was also equipped with heavy, bone-crushing jaws, another classic scavenging adaptation similar to that of roughly contemporary bone-crushing canids, and its sheer one-ton bulk would have intimidated smaller predators from trying to protect their newly killed prey.

All About Gargoyles and How to Use Them

All About Gargoyles and How to Use Them A gargoyle is a waterspout, usually carved to resemble an odd or monstrous creature, that protrudes from a structures wall or roofline. By definition, a real gargoyle has a function- to throw rainwater away from a building. The word gargoyle is from the Greek gargarizein meaning to wash the throat. The word gargle comes from the same Greek derivation- so think of yourself as a gargoyle when you swish your mouth, gurgling and gargling with your mouthwash. In fact, the word spelled as gurgoyle was commonly used in the 19th century, most notably by British author Thomas Hardy in Chapter 46 of Far From the Madding Crowd (1874). The function of a gargoyle is to spit out excess water, but why it looks the way it does is another story. Legend has it that a dragon-like creature named La Gargouille terrorized the people of Rouen, France. In the seventh century A.D., a local cleric named Romanus used Christian symbolism to neutralize La Gargouilles threat to the townspeople- its said that Romanus destroyed the beast with the sign of the cross. Many early Christians were led to their religion by the fear of the gargoyle, a symbol of Satan. The Christian church became a protective haven for the mostly illiterate people. Romanus knew the legends that the townspeople of Rouen did not know. The oldest gargoyles have been found in present-day Egypt from the Fifth Dynasty, c. 2400 B.C. The functional and practical waterspout has also been found in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Gargoyles in the shape of dragons are found in Chinas Forbidden City and imperial tombs from the Ming Dynasty. Medieval and Modern Gargoyles Waterspouts became more ornate toward the end of the Romanesque architectural period. The Middle Ages was a time of Christian pilgrimage, often with the pillaging of sacred relics. Sometimes cathedrals were specially built to house and protect sacred bones, such as those of Saint-Lazare dAutun in France. Protective animal gargoyles, in the shape of pigs and dogs, are not only waterspouts but act as symbolic protection at the 12th century Cathà ©drale Saint-Lazare dAutun. The mythical Greek chimera became a popular figure stonemasons used as gargoyles. The sculpting of the functional gargoyle became especially popular in the Gothic building boom across Europe, so gargoyles have come to be associated with this architectural era. French architect Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) extended this association to Gothic-Revival as he creatively restored the Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral with many of the famous gargoyles and grotesques seen today. Gargoyles can also be found on American Gothic Revival buildings such as the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. In the 20th century, Art Deco style gargoyles can be seen atop the 1930 Chrysler Building, a well-known skyscraper in New York City. These more modern gargoyles are made of metal and look like heads of American eagles- protrusions that have been called hood ornaments by some enthusiasts. By the 20th century, gargoyle functionality as waterspouts had evaporated even if the tradition lived on. Disney Gargoyles Cartoon Between 1994 and 1997, Walt Disney Television Animation produced a well-received cartoon called Gargoyles. The main character, Goliath, says things like It is the gargoyle way, but dont let him fool you. Real gargoyles dont come alive after dark. In 2004, ten years after the first episode aired, DVDs of the animations were released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. To a certain generation, this series is a remembrance of things past. Grotesques As the functional waterspout aspect of gargoyles diminished, the creatively monstrous sculpting grew. What is called a gargoyle may also be called a grotesquery, meaning that it is grotesque. These grotesque sculptures can suggest monkeys, devils, dragons, lions, griffins, humans, or any other creature. Language purists may reserve the word gargoyle only for the objects that serve the practical purpose of directing rainwater from the roof. Care and Maintenance of Gargoyles and Grotesques Because gargoyles are by definition on the exterior of buildings, they are subject to natural elements- especially water. As slender, sculpted protrusions, their deterioration is imminent. Most of the gargoyles we see today are reproductions. In fact, in 2012 the Duomo in Milan, Italy created an Adopt a Gargoyle campaign to help pay for upkeep and restoration- which makes a lovely gift for the person who has everything. Source: Gargoyle entry by Lisa A. Reilly, The Dictionary of Art, Vol 12, Jane Turner, ed., Grove, 1996, pp. 149-150

International development studies midterm Essay

International development studies midterm - Essay Example Chronic poverty, on the other hand is the poverty that persists in a people’s lifetime (Hulme and Shepherd, 403). According to the world poverty index, extreme poverty is experienced when a person spends less than one dollar a day in both expenditure and consumption. Severe poverty, nevertheless, involves spending less than 0.7 dollars a day. Chronic poverty combines these two poverty lines and often transmits this style to generations that follow. Globalization involves the rapid and equal growth of the entire world through mechanisms that enhance interaction, trade and therefore enhancing global prosperity. With the existence of chronic poverty, many developing countries find it difficult to provide quality health services to the many citizens who live in impoverished states. The globalization trend aims at encouraging foreign investments in an individual country, and this has been the trend for many developing countries. Pushed by the need to provide employment and improve the tax revenue for provision of quality social services to the populations, many developing countries have embraced foreign investments from the first class economies. These investors are well aware of the desperate state of the poor people in these countries, hence putting in place industries that are labor intensive but offering poor remuneration for the laborers working in these industries. This represents inequality in the treatment of the markets, as in foreign countries the working conditions are adhered to buy the foreign investors (Ellis, 15). However, globalization helps in creating the much-needed social assistance that involves elevating the poorest people towards achieving better living standards. With the rise in globalization, the poor people are able to receive income that is in turn generated towards investment programs that are initiated by the foreign investments. Besides, the investments by foreign companies in developing countries enables these countries to

Lenin's The State and Revolution critical summary Essay

Lenin's The State and Revolution critical summary - Essay Example For many Marxists, grasping the essence of State and Revolution is regarded as the hallmark of genuine communists. The social analysis presented by Lenin ultimately justifies violent revolution. Lenin explains that those who continue to claim that they are Marxists too are exposed as fraud if they dispute the concept that only a violent uprising led by the proletariat and participated by all working masses can bring about the downfall of the bourgeoisie and lead to the construction of a new society where the majority are indeed superior to the minority, one that is also the cornerstone for the achievement of communism in the future. Lenin’s articulation is not just based on the earlier works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels though. This is also a by-product of the actual revolutionary experiences in Germany and France. Because of this, his ideas are not entirely new but are the more timely and practical perspective of Marxism. However, not everyone, even among the ranks of th ose who claim to be socialists, appreciate the points raised by Lenin. Even as he presented his criticisms against the reformists and the anarchists alike, his concepts were also heavily bombarded by the very people he criticized. From whatever perspective, whether left or right, State and Revolution is undoubtedly one of the foremost texts that shape theories useful in political science. This means that it is definitely not just the Marxists or the revolutionaries who should comprehend its meaning. The State: Establishment and ‘Withering Away’ In the first chapter of State and Revolution, Lenin reiterated the essential point raised by Engels regarding the principal character of the state. In defining the state, he merely re-emphasized Engels’ theory that it is a reflection of the reality that class antagonisms could be resolved in societies according to the current level of historical development. In Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, Engels points out that the state â€Å"is a product of society at a certain stage of development; it is the admission that this society has become entangled in an insoluble contradiction with itself, that it has split into irreconcilable antagonisms which it is powerless to dispel† (Engels, 2004, p.157). Social hierarchy as represented by the government is a means of instilling order, one that favors the economic elite, the bourgeoisie. It is precisely because there is a majority of working masses that need to be oppressed to instill subservience that the state creates armed components such as the armed forces and the police, aided by the judiciary and the penal system. The state, as Lenin explains, is therefore an instrument of those who are dominant also in the economic sphere. It is a coercive mechanism that is employed by the bourgeoisie in order to maintain its power seemingly, at first, in the sphere of politics. However, it ultimately serves as weapon against those who may wa nt to change the status quo in the economy and production as well. However, the establishment of the state apparently does not resolve contradictions among the classes. Instead, it only sharpens these to the point that the oppressed and exploited would deem it necessary to wage a revolution. Lenin clarifies that revolutions are not just abnormal reactions of the masses to intense oppression and exploitation. Revolutions occur as a natural response to the realities of class antagonisms. Therefore, for as long as classes

Creation and Development of a Film Soundtrack

Creation and Development of a Film Soundtrack Abstract Cinematic environments are created through image, dialogue, music and sound,  but the craft involved in creating an environmental soundtrack often goes  unnoticed by the film viewer. Soundscapes are rarely just background: they are  powerful storytelling vehicles in their own right, of equal importance to the visuals.  This article examines the process of creating an environmental soundtrack for  cinema from the perspective of a sound designer. Particular attention is given to  how sound is created and layered to enhance, embellish and produce the films  narrative. Using contemporary Australian films, notably Australia (Baz Luhrmann, 2008) and  Happy Feet (George Miller, 2006), the article examines the different challenges in  creating an environmental soundscape for both an animation and a live action film.  The films Avatar (James Cameron, 2009), Little Fish (Rowan Woods, 2005) and The  Magician (Scott Ryan, 2005) are also cited to highlight various approaches to  environmental representation in film sound. While both Australia and Happy Feet  rely on the landscape and environment as integral storytelling components, the  approach to creating their respective soundscapes requires not only natural  recordings, but also the creation of many previously unheard sounds using  synthetic sound design. Keywords: Sound design, Australian film, soundscape, environmental representation,  animation Introduction Soundscapes have the ability to transcend the social and cultural barriers that  sometimes thwart language and even music. Creating an environmental  soundtrack for cinema is as much a technical craft as it is an aesthetic art form.   Often overlooked by the audience, the sounds of the environment in many  contemporary films are based on the synthetic design and recreation of many  settings. Environmental soundscapes are some of the most intricate to create. The  combination of image, dialogue, music and sound help create the overall  soundtrack, however the film viewer is often unaware of the intricacies and  craftwork used in the creation of these aural environments. Furthermore,  narrative of the film is carefully considered in the creation of these environmental  soundtrack elements. This article examines the process of creating an environmental soundtrack for  cinema from the perspective of a sound designer who has worked in the Australian  film industry for over 15 years (Fig 1). The articles focus is on the use of  environmental recordings and sound effects to create a landscape, as opposed to  the use of dialogue and music in the soundtrack. Using two contemporary  Australian films, Happy Feet (George Miller, 2006) and Australia (Baz Luhrmann,  2008), this article examines the different creative process used for an  environmental soundscape for an animation and a live action feature film.   Figure 1: The author at work at Australian Clay Target Association, Wagga Gun Club, Wagga Wagga, Australia. (Photo  courtesy of Tony Turner.) Soundscape Design From earliest societies to contemporary musicians, sound has been an integral  communication component to convey messages, express emotion and to tell a  story. Communication through the use of sound has been significant to human  social evolution. Although spoken language is the predominant form of sonic  communication in our society, other oral and aural methods include rhythm,  melody, percussion, humming, the mimicking of sounds through vocalisations and,  in the modern era, by the recording and creation of music and sounds through the  use of technology. As David Sonnenschein states, [by] giving meaning to noise,  sound becomes communication (2001, p. xix). Through the use of recorded sounds  and the creation of new sounds, the art of sound design has become an important  approach to screen based storytelling. Although landscapes appear to be natural, creative liberty is often given to the  aural representation of these settings as required by the film narrative. While both  Happy Feet and Australia rely on the landscape and environment as integral  storytelling components, the approach to creating their respective soundscapes requires not only natural recordings, but also synthetic sound design and  creation. Whether natural or synthetic, neither approach is less significant than  the other. In this paper my definition of natural recordings pertains to sounds that are created organically through such elements as winds, ice, land mass, water,  animals, vegetation and various other sounds naturally occurring without evidence  of human or industrial influence or activity. Difficulties such as accessibility and noise pollution make our most pristine  locations increasingly difficult to capture sonically. Although not always the  preferred method, synthetic aural environmental design will continue to develop as  a necessary addition to assist in crafting the aural illusion of cinematic  environments. Using a recent trip to Mount Kosciusko as an example (Fig 2), I was  surprised at the amount of noise pollution tainting the sound recordings within the  National Park. Many of these sounds were distant sounds, including small planes  and agricultural sprinklers: however they still managed to appear faintly in the  background of some of the recordings. When used in the context of a film these  edited recordings appear to be natural when first listened to by an audience, but  they are unaware of the use of equalisation, filtering techniques, frequency band  compression and other such technological solutions in eradicating this noise. Th is  processing of the original recordings in turn transforms these natural recordings  to new artificially designed pseudo natural sounding environments.   Figure 2: Yarrangobilly River, Kosciuszko National Park. (Photo courtesy of Caroline Candusso.) When the sound designer commences production on a film, they study the  environmental landscape, location and the period in which the film is set. This  becomes the foundational building block of the soundtrack and determines the  approach to creating the overall narrative for the film through sound. In the film  medium, sound design purposefully communicates to an audience through  recorded and created sounds that augment the onscreen visuals. In contemporary  cinema, dialogue is the primary auditory component used to convey a story,  however the sound ecology of the landscape and the sound effects are of equal  importance. Sound design does not merely replicate what is happening on screen,  it is an additional storytelling component. An example of this occurs in Australia  (Baz Luhrmann, 2008), in the scene where we first learn of the impending attack   on Darwin by the Japanese. Here for the first time a soft, almost whispering of  wind is heard. The plane approach has no engine sounds, only the sounds of the  wings slicing through the air. This was a brief from the director who wanted the  first plane to replicate a shark surfacing with only the fin piercing the water  surface. It is not until the plane is revealed and peels off to the right of screen that  we start to hear the sound of an actual engine, the roar of danger, the sound of an  advancing Zero threat. The sound does not give away the shot before we see the  plane, in fact it adds to the curiosity. The sound of the wind makes the scene even  more menacing and, in this instance, the sound has foreshadowed the action on an  emotional level before the visuals have presented it. In cinema history, advances in sound technology have given filmmakers the  opportunity to take advantage of the creativity of sound and allow it to play an  equally important role as the visuals in storytelling. As George Lucas has noted,  Sound is 50 percent of the movie going experience (2004: online). Hollywood has  increasingly relied on sound to contribute to the contemporary film viewing  experience. Audience expectations of sound place greater emphasis on the craft of  sound design. Approaching the Task of Environmental Sound Creation   With many factors contributing to the use of authentic sound recordings  (including budget, availability of personnel, deadlines etc.), often sounds need to be  fabricated. These sounds may make up the entire soundtrack, or they may only  make up elements of the soundtrack that blend with other recordings of actual  environmental sound. If the soundtrack is created well, it will not appear to be out  of place and the audience will not be aware of any disparities. It is only when the  soundtrack jars that the audience is alerted to the sound and may question the  legitimacy or integrity of the sound sources. A fictitious alien landscape scene, for  example, containing recognisable sounds from our world may elicit a sense of  disbelief. When we see a storm onscreen, we routinely hear thunder; when we see a dog, it  often barks; a door usually creaks; a car might skid when stopping; and explosions  may shake the room. There are many sound clichà ©s consistently used in the  contemporary soundtrack. Through developments in cinema sound technology,  many Hollywood film soundtracks are created to deliver what an audience expects  to hear, rather than represent the actual sounds of the real world. Also sounds are  pared back from all of those that might be in a specific setting to emphasise those  most relevant to the narrative. With the use of high quality speakers with a wide  frequency response, the introduction of the various surround sound formats and  powerful computers with an array of software options, technology is allowing for  greater creativity and flexibility in the soundtrack. The sound designer needs to balance between telling the story using the available  tools, and delivering a soundtrack that is credible for the story and setting. While  the overall soundtrack needs to be treated with careful consideration, so too should  the individual sound components that contribute to it. It is not uncommon for the  sound designer and editors to research the authenticity of various elements within  the film to provide a guide as to the legitimacy of the sounds and the sound sets  required. For example, if we see a shot of the Statue of Liberty, New York and, place of the sound of pigeons, the only birds we hear are kookaburras, the  audience will be distracted from the story, and continuity of the film will be  disrupted.In both Happy Feet and Australia, extensive research was conducted into the  environments and locations of both film settings prior to the editing of any sound.  Particular attention was given to the study of the wildlife, espe cially birds and  insects, and the seasons. Other research investigated the locations on a larger  scale including the weather of Antarctica-which notably does not develop thunder.  Careful sound choice allows the audience to be situated within the depicted  environment. At the commencement of sound post-production, one of the most important  preparatory steps is to read the script or to watch an edit of the film in its entirety.   Depending on the film, the sound team may have the luxury of reading a script  during the film pre-production phase or in other instances a rough edit may be  given to the sound team to view almost immediately after shooting has completed.  In some instances they may be given both. Providing either a script or an early edit  of the film allows for the planning of the dramatic journey of the film, and the  mapping of the narrative dynamics through sound. This can be in the form of  physically drawing a chart or a graph mapping the drama and dynamics of the film  over time. This allows careful designing of sounds to build up to the climactic  scenes in the film, and then to use quiet moments to increase dramatic impact.  Having a graphic representation of the film allows for the nuanced planning of the  soundtrack, which will follow and often assist the onscreen narrative. Depending  on the directors approach to the film, this method can also be helpful for creati ng  juxtaposition between the onscreen drama and the aural drama. Sound has the  power to emphasise or soften a story depending on the directors decisions. Happy  Feet has a scene depicting a leopard seal chasing the central protagonist, Mumble,  underwater. Due to the visual size and menacing teeth of the leopard seal the  original sounds edited for the scene had to be re-crafted to suit the targeted  audience of children. Many of the original growls were replaced by less aggressive  grunts, and more breaths were added to soften the chase and viciousness of the  antagonist. Every film has its own challenges and requires its own approach to the sound  design. Some films are created to imitate reality and often contain sounds of  actual location sound recordings of what the audience is seeing on screen,  recorded on set from the filmed locations. In the films Little Fish (Rowan Woods,  2005) and The Magician (Scott Ryan, 2010) for which I was a sound effects editor,  sound designer Sam Petty aimed to recreate the actual real sound of the locations  in both films. Petty retraced the shots of The Magician and recorded the film  locations throughout Melbourne. On Little Fish I retraced and recorded many of the  film location environments including several locations in Cabramatta, Sydney (Fig  3). Both the Cabramatta train station and the featured shopping mall are central to  establishing the locations within this film. Having to recreate these locations from  either library sounds or unauthentic recordings would have been very time   consuming, and still may not provide the desired authenticity.   It is important to note that the shooting schedule does not generally allow enough  time for the location sound crew to capture many sounds of locations during  filming. The primary concern of the location sound recordist and crew is to capture  the dialogue and the actor performances. The audio post-production crew then  need to seek permissions to re-record after initial filming, which requires further  time and funding that are rarely included in the budget.    In contrast to films like The Magician and Little Fish, many films require the use of  exotic, rare and even previously unheard or fabricated environmental sounds. With  the increase in films based around visual effects, films can be located in fictional  lands with entirely contrived characters and creatures.  Depending on the context of the film, an audience will have preconceived ideas of   what the sounds should be for particular scenes. This is the case even for animated  films that are set in entirely contrived locales. James Camerons Avatar (2009) is a  well-cited contemporary example. No one has physically experienced this mythical  land of Pandora, although we have some sense of what we would expect to hear,  for example, by associating the forest with familiar rainforest, or by the appearance  of certain creatures. The environmental sounds alone comprise many previously  unheard insects, specific and unusual animals, other background animal  vocalisations, and types of vegetation. On occasions such as this it may be necessary to create entirely new sounds for  these new worlds. These original sounds may start their incarnation from the  recordings of sounds from our own world or they may be completely synthesised.   What is important is to keep these new sounds identifiable according to our  current expectations. Some designing techniques for these new sounds may  include the following:   transforming existing sounds through the use of pitch changing,  equalisation, or any number of filtering processes using specific recordings of rare or unusual sounds   pitching or modifying electronics, machinery or vehicles   pitching and combining various animal vocalisations   using synthesis to create new sounds, and others.   Although budget constraints will influence the approach to film sound design, so  too does the availability and existence of-and access to-required sounds. When  creating a sonic environment or landscape for a film, wherever it is set, it is  important to consider what is real to the location, what seems real, and what  sounds the audience expects to hear. In summary, factors determining the  approach to the creation of the environments include whether the location exists in  the real world, whether environmental recordings were made during on-location  filming, whether the storyline is located in a contemporary setting, and whether  funds and safety allow the recording of the location.  This leads to a discussion of two contemporary feature films from the perspective of  a sound effects editor1. Produced on relatively big budgets for Australian feature  films,2 both Happy Feet and Australia included a dedicated atmosphere sound  editor as part of the sound te am. This role is often absorbed by the sound effects  editor on smaller productions and lower budget projects. In both films, my sound  effect creation and editing drove the use of the environment as an integral story  component and, as such, I worked very closely with the atmosphere editors. What  distinguished my role from that of the atmosphere editor was that my contribution  treated the landscape as a character. Working in sound effects, I specifically  designed many sounds for both films with integrated and often highlighted story  elements associated with the environments. These films differ quite considerably and provide contrasting examples of sonic  environment creation. The films are set in remarkable and distinctive locations; Happy Feet is an animated film set in Antarctica, while Australia is a live action film  set in the Northern Territory, Australia.3 Both films pose varying degrees of  complexity in terms of their sonic environmental depictions on screen.  Creating a Sound Environment As with the visuals, the sound for an animated film differs from live action film. With no actual filming on location, all characters are created, all sets are rendered,  and all visuals are designed by animation artists. There is no cinematographer filming actors at an actual geographical location as with a live action film (although  voice acting is recorded for the animators). Sound recordings of the film set  locations are not captured as there is no filming on location.4 Therefore all sound  environments need to be recorded and/or created from the ground up.   1 In this article I focus on the environmental sounds, and a consideration of spot effects is a topic for a further study.   2 According to the International Movie Database (IMDB.com) the budget for Happy Feet was $100,000,000  (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0366548/) and $130,000,000 for Australia (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0455824/).   3 Some scenes were shot in various locations in Northern Territory, northern Queensland and Sydneys Fox Studios.   4 However some animators, notably Australian Yoram Gross, have used filmed bush background for the drawn characters.  See Dot and the Kangaroo (1977) and other work.Screen Sound n3, 2012 128   Happy Feet Millers Academy Award winning Happy Feet tells the story of Mumble, an emperor  penguin who, instead of being able to sing, tap dances. The characters of the film  also included many animated Antarctic animals, primarily penguins. The  combination of an animated remote environment (Antarctica) and animated  animals meant that every sound for this film had to be created.  Through the use of detailed layers of sound, sound design is about creating a level  of believability. It is not just a matter of placing a single sound into a scene and  hoping that the audience believes it. Ambiences in our everyday life are complex,  with chaotic and sometimes even choreographed symphonies, with the land, the  wind, animals, birds and vegetation all playing their tunes within a given space. In  addition to these individual sounds, these acoustic spaces are important in  representing the onscreen landscape spaces.   The challenge of creating such an unpolluted, isolated and dangerous atmosphere  meant that the sound design had to be precise and untainted by unwanted  background noises. As the budget didnt allow for a sound team to travel and  record actual Antarctic locations, climatic conditions and animal activities, we had  to rely on pre-existing sound recordings of Antarctica or recordings made in more  accessible locations such as Thredbo ski resort in Australia and from some  locations in New Zealands South Island.   With many shots depicting the rugged landscape of Antarctica, often the detail  within the sound design can pass unnoticed. If we look specifically at Lovelaces  Pile (Fig 4) the sounds can be unpacked to reveal far more detail than what is  initially heard. Basic element Breakdown of sounds Winds Close up winds (flurries of snow) Distant winds to give sense of space Wind howling through icicles Snow Movements on snow by penguins Melting snow Snow falling off cliffs in the background Ice-land Mass (subtle) Movements of ice Ice cracks and creaks Ice thumps Animals Background penguin vocals near and far Background penguin movement Table 1: Landscape sounds in Lovelaces Pile scene in Happy Feet   From this list the sound editor has 11 possible sets of sounds that may be  deployed to create the environmental backdrop for this scene. This excludes any  character or action related sounds; it is only the ambient background.   Without access to record authentic atmospheres, many of the sounds were  recorded or sourced from other locations in order to imitate the film set. These  would then be reconstructed as the sounds could vary entirely. We were fortunate  that we had some actual recordings of Antarctica for the film. During production,  supervising sound editor and sound designer, Wayne Pashley, sent a mini-disc  recorder to the Antarctic and asked scientists to record sounds whilst doing their  field studies. Unfortunately, the recording quality was not always film worthy as  the scientists are not trained sound recordists. Happy Feet did contain some actual  sounds from Antarctica, although a high percentage of sounds were either non-  Antarctic recordings or studio recordings created specifically for the film.   The animal recordings from Antarctica were used where possible to create an  underlying realistic bed for the film. Some of the successful recorded sounds used  included those of elephant seals, adà ©lie penguins, emperor penguins and even skua  birds. These beds of animal noises gave the background environment a sense of  reality upon which to layer the main characters. The main and featured animals  were often recreated using studio recordings and other sources of sound  recordings.   Some of the successful Antarctic environmental recordings included iceberg  movements, ice winds, and slushy icy water. These were also edited and used  where possible alongside additional created sounds. Again, these realistic  environmental sounds were primarily employed to evoke a believable background  ambience. To emphasise the size and weight of several of the large icebergs,  controlled recording and studio techniques helped create such large masses. This  included close microphone techniques and using dry-ice (liquid nitrogen) to freeze  large objects that we could then record being dragged across the floor. With the  realistic Antarctic recordings serving as our bed, these additional recreated sounds  became the embellishments and the dramatic highlights.   As storytellers in our own right, creative liberty allowed for the reappropriation of  these sounds. At times these sounds would be used only as a bed and then  additional snow, ice and wind elements would be created and embellished to better  represent the onscreen visuals and the unfolding drama. Some of these sounds  came from our own original Foley studio recording sessions using props to design   sounds to be used to highlight onscreen action. An example of the studio  recordings included creating snow for the feet close-ups where the characters  dance on the snow. As we did not have access to snow, we recorded crushed ice,  salt, cereal, sugar, sand and several other props to mimic the sound of snow.  Recording in a studio allowed us to create our sounds specifically for the particular  scene. Throughout the film, the seasons changed over a one-year cycle and we  wanted to represent this as best we could through the changing environment  sounds. We had allocated recording days where we could record specific sounds in  a very clean, precise manner. If we needed more grit in our snow we could just  change the elements we were recording, or if we needed the snow to sound more  wet we could just mix in some more water when required. We were not dictated by  natural resources. The other advantage of having these studio recording days was  that we could rec ord sounds specifically for the big screen. What I mean by this is  that we could record sounds specifically for the surround sound speakers. Using  the close-up of feet on snow as an example, if a character flicked his/her  flipper/foot in close-up, we could record different snow elements for the left, centre  and right hand side of the flipper and have the debris snow crumbles pan back into  the surrounds. This would have been impossible to record with such precision as  an actual performance in real life. By having control of individual sound elements,  we were able to creatively challenge the cinema and screen space to highlight the  environmental immersion.   Australia Set during the Second World War, Australias storyline centres on a cattle drive in  the rugged terrain of northern Australia, as an English aristocrat travels across  harsh environments with her stock. From the opening moments, even before the  first visual images, sound is used to position the audience of Australia. From the  initial fade in from black we begin to hear ethereal singing, native birds, insects,  winds and the gradual swell of string instruments. In these opening scenes, the sounds of different winds, animals and insects  intertwine with an emotional journey across an environmental backdrop that  transforms, as the audience witness the death of Lord Ashley, from above ground  and into the muffled and mysterious murky underwater drones and whale song.  Playing in slow-motion the images show King George (David Gulpilil) telling Nullah  (Brandon Walters) to make yourself invisible as the white fellas are herding cattle  across the river onto the Carney property. Although music is also playing  concurrently with the sound effects, the effects design specifically aims to make  reference to Aboriginal dreamtime. As Lord Ashley is killed and falls to the water  above Nullah with a spear through his chest, the water turns crimson, the sound  hints that Lord Ashley has been killed by the people moving the cattle, the same  people Nullah is also hiding from. Visually it isnt until we see the snakeskin boot  of N eil Fletcher (David Wenham) that we realise that he is the killer.  Although the sounds chosen for this sequence are simple environmental  recordings, what is important is the way in which they have been reappropriated to  form part of the narrative. Through transformation, including pitch and other  manipulation techniques of the original recordings, these evolve into new, unheardof  sounds that yet seem familiar. When designing such delicate sounds, much time was spent experimenting with  the creation of sounds that morph unnoticeably from one sound into another  throughout the opening sequence. Tonal frequencies, recording quality and mixing  techniques were constantly balanced and adjusted to create a single fluid flow of  environmental sounds. At the same time, although continually transforming, the  sounds needed to contain characteristics of the original sound sources, allowing  the audience to connect the aural with the visual. Throughout Australia, designed  sounds are used very subtly. Overall the film uses actual location and natural  sounds to convey the Australian landscape, with the designed sounds being  reserved for scenes with Nullah, the death of Daisy and for King George, as these  relate to the dreamtime and spirituality.   With vast landscapes of Australias Northern Territory depicted through  cinematography, natural sounds are needed to convey the impact of the  environment. Supervising sound editor and sound designer, Wayne Pashley,  retraced many of the original locations in the film during the sound postproduction  phase. Using a Soundfield ST350 ambisonic microphone, Pashley was  able to record in surround sound an entire three-dimensional landscape on  location. Until recently, creating film surround sound was only possible during the  post-production process, but this particular technology allowed for a pristine,  natural recording of the environment. These recordings in surround were then  decoded, edited and used as beds for the atmosphere tracks of the film. Pashley  observed: We also wanted to be true to the landscape of Australia. So often in big  productions like this, the sound design guys just reach for Bush  Atmosphere Number Three [library effect] or whatever, and everything  comes out sounding the same. Also, what you hear is usually completely  unrelated to the environment you see on the screen. We wanted this to be  different. Australia is, I think, the first movie that sounds correct, that gives  a true sense of how this country sounds. (cited in Soundfield, 2008:  online) With many scenes depicting broad vistas, having the atmospheres recorded in  surround from the outset allows the sounds to reflect the vastness of the actual  locations. In sound editing, the atmosphere tracks are often edited from existing  stereo recordings, thus limiting the detail within the acoustic space. In most  instances, artificial reverb is introduced to make the sounds appear to be wider  within the acoustic space. Recording in surround sound reduces the need for and  use of these contrived techniques. All animal sounds for Australia were purposely recorded for the film. Working  remotely and living in regional New South Wales, I was able to record many of the  animal vocalisations of cows and horses for the film at locales situated near where I  live. The cows were particularly challenging to record as they are often difficult to  get close to without them running away. Having the livestock saleyards proved to  be a very convenient way to record cows at close proximity. Also having so many  cows in such a small space allowed the recording of mass group cows to be used in  many of the backgrounds. Situated within a livestock pen meant that the beasts  were particularly vocal, which allowed for high quality recording and performance  and, later, for flexibility in editing their bellows. Conclusion Often overshadowed by dialogue and music, the environmental atmospheric  sounds of a film are often overlooked by audiences. These aural landscapes  comprise either actual recordings or synthetic recordings constructed to  acoustically represent the onscreen locations. Both Happy Feet and Australia rely  on the aural landscape environment as essential storytelling characters within  each film. Based on very distinct locations, the films differed notably in the  approaches to their environmental landscape sound design. In a general  comparison Happy Feet featured far more inauthe

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

| Battle of the Teutoburg Forest In 9 AD, Roman general Roman general Varus was betrayed by Arminius, the leader of a massive Germanic tribe. Arminius deceived the Roman and led them into a trap deep into the Teutoburg forest which would lay a foundation for what will be one of the biggest defeats in roman history; resulting in the extermination of some 20,000 roman troops. The effects of this defeat halted Roman expansion beyond the Rhine River. The psychological affects would eventually take a toll on Augustus, leading to illness and death. (Wells, p. 5) Arminius was the prince of the Cherusci tribe of Germans. He lived in the northern part of modern day Germany. (P. 107) Later, he would go on to serve in the roman army, in command of Roman auxiliary forces comprised of members from the surrounding tribes. He learned his tactic here while in his service for Rome. This would later grant him the upper hand, for he will know the Romans weaknesses and he will know how they fight. He mo st likely had a variety of motives for serving in the Roman military. Besides earning a substantial salary, he would have gained considerable status in Rome.During his years of service to the Roman Military he learned Latin and in recognition of is efforts to Rome, was award with Roman citizenship. (P. 108). This is a prize that is normally bestowed upon those leaders who give exceptional service to Rome. Also, he was granted status as an equestrian, which is quite a high rank in Roman society. Around the year of 9 A. D. , Arminius left the Roman military and returned to his homeland. When he returned home at the age of 25, his experience with the Roman military had prepared him to lead. Rome’s man in the Rhineland in A. D. 9 was Publius Quinctilius Varus. † (Wells,P. 80) He had attained an excellent record of service as governor and general in various places within the Empire. In the year of 13 B. C. he served for consul with Claudius Nero. Varus was provided entry int o the political elite of Rome via marriage connections and relationships linked with Augustus. As his role as Consul, Varus was able to integrate himself within the political world and shake hands with the right people. Events leading up to the attack were slow but steady.Romans held little of Germania before the revolt, they had some organized communities but not many. Romans believed they had a mission to grant others with the civilized life such as theirs and to give other regions what they have to offer. This expansion pushed smoothly and slowly through Germania as the tribes there began to see the benefit of Roman civilization. â€Å"The barbarians were adapting themselves to Roman ways, were becoming accustomed to hold markets, and were meeting in peaceful assemblages.They had not, however, forgotten their ancestral habits, their native manners, their old life of independence, or the power derived from arms†¦becoming different without knowing it. † (Cassius Dio, P. 1) However, when Quinctilius Varus was placed Governor of the province of Germania he began to push Roman way of life on them at a much quicker rate. According to Cassius Dio, â€Å"Besides issuing orders to them as if they were actually slaves of the Romans, he exacted money as he would from subject nations. To this they were in no mood to submit. Ancient historian, Velleius Paterculus, notes that Varus was â€Å"more accustomed to the leisure of the camp than to actual service in war. † The quiet camp grounds and communities suits Varus quite well. Arminus returned to Germania from Pannonina as a respected leader and trusted Roman citizen. Germanic tribe members complied with Roman law while suppressing their barbarian ways of solving issues. This was only a front to keep the Romans off their backs. The barbarians were growing tired of the Roman rules and having to go to Roman courts to have the Romans decide their disputes.The barbarians had long standing traditions for solving their issues and they were not satisfied with the way that Varus forced this rule onto them. The resentment begins to build while the surface seems calm. Varus had not been accustomed to governing those who did not want to be governed. So, when the Germanic people had enough of the Roman forces, they decided to fool him for something must be done to get rid of him. This of course is when the turn to Arminius, for no one is more perfect for the job.His high status and trust within the Roman government allows him to set the largest trap imaginable. Velleius Paterculus adds, â€Å"This young man made use of the negligence†¦seeing that no one could be more quickly overpowered than the man who feared nothing, and that the most common beginning of disaster was a sense of security. † The Germans set their trap deep in the tree clogged forest of the Teutoburg forest. Varus and his troops are packing up to advance to a camp to the east. Meanwhile, he is approached by an o ld friend, Arminius. He notifies Varus of a small ribal uprising right off the course to their intended path to the camp. This ambush was setup alongside a narrow path, causing the romans to march closely together. (Cassius Dio, P. 7) Cassius Dio notes, â€Å"they had with them many wagons and many beasts of burden as in time of peace. † To add to the difficulties, it had begun to rain, making the forest floor slippery while tree tops fell on them creating confusion. While the Romans were undergoing such complications, the barbarians suddenly surrounded them on all sides at once. They were caught in the worst situation possible.The Roman army was slaughtered as thousands of soldiers were ambushed by barbarians, destroying 16,000 Romans in one swoop (Wells, P. 189). This battle was significant for the fact that it halted Roman expansion across the Rhine River and sent a message to Rome that they were not invincible. While it may have been a short battle, it was a large loss. W hen Augustus is exposed the extreme loss, he is devastated. The Romans, along with Varus, knew that it was completely Varus’s fault and would lead him to suicide. Works Cited Wells, Peter S.The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, And The Slaughter Of The Legions In The Teutoburg Forest / Peter S. Wells. n. p. : New York : W. W. Norton, 2004. , 2004. Louisiana State University. Web. 17 Oct. 2012. â€Å"The Battle of Teutoburg Forest. †Ã‚  Penelope. uchicago. edu. Web. 17 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Velleius Paterculus. †Ã‚  The Battle in the Teutoburg Forest. N. p. , 16 Aug. 2010. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. .