What Is the True Meaning of Republicanism

The Founding Fathers of the United States of America may have declared independence from Britain in 1776, but the real work of putting together the new government got underway at the Constitutional Convention, which took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia. After the deliberations ended and the delegates were leaving the hall, a member of the crowd that had gathered outside, Mrs. Elizabeth Powell, asked Benjamin Franklin, â€Å"Well, doctor, what have we got? A republic or a monarchy?† Franklin responded, â€Å"A republic, madam, if you can keep it.† Today, citizens of the United States assume they have kept it, but what, exactly, does a republic, and the philosophy that defines it—republicanism—mean? Definition In general, republicanism refers to the ideology embraced by members of a republic, which is a form of representational government in which leaders are elected for a specific period by the preponderance of the citizenry, and laws are passed by these leaders for the benefit of the entire republic, rather than select members of a ruling class, or aristocracy. In an ideal republic, leaders are elected from among the working citizenry, serve the republic for a defined period, then return to their work, never to serve again. Unlike a direct or pure democracy, in which the majority vote rules, a republic guarantees a certain set of basic civil rights to every citizen, codified in a charter or constitution, which cannot be overridden by majority rule. Key Concepts Republicanism stresses several key concepts, notably, the importance of civic virtue, the benefits of universal political participation, the dangers of corruption, the need for  separate powers within government, and a healthy reverence for the rule of law. From these concepts, one paramount value stands apart: political liberty. Political liberty, in this case, refers not only to freedom from government interference in private affairs, but it also places great emphasis on self-discipline and self-reliance. Under a monarchy, for instance, an all-powerful leader decrees what the citizenry is and is not allowed to do. By contrast, leaders of a republic stay out of the lives of the individuals they serve, unless the republic as a whole is threatened, say in the case of a violation of a civil liberty guaranteed by the charter or constitution. A republican government usually has several safety nets in place to offer assistance to those in need, but the general assumption is that most individuals are capable of helping themselves and their fellow citizens. History The word republic comes from the Latin phrase res publica, meaning thing of the people or the public property. The Romans rejected their king and formed a republic in about 500 BCE. There were three periods of republics until it finally fell in 30 BCE. Republicanism saw revivals in Europe during the Middle Ages, but chiefly in limited areas and for short times. It was not until the American and French revolutions that republicanism took more of a foothold. Notable Quotes â€Å"Public virtue cannot exist in a nation without private, and public virtue is the only foundation of republics.† — John Adams â€Å"Citizenship is what makes a republic; monarchies can get along without it.† — Mark Twain â€Å"The true republic: men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less.† — Susan B. Anthony â€Å"Our safety, our liberty, depends upon preserving the Constitution of the United States as our fathers made it inviolate.† — Abraham Lincoln â€Å"In republican governments, men are all equal; equal they are also in despotic governments: in the former, because they are everything; in the latter, because they are nothing.†Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Montesquieu Sources â€Å"Republicanism.†Ã‚  Annenberg Classroom, 4 Aug. 2017.â€Å"Republicanism.†Ã‚  North Carolina History Project.

Okonkwo Valued Masculinity - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 492 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/05/08 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Things Fall Apart Essay Did you like this example? Okonkwo was a very well known young man, due to solid personal achievements. Achievements such as throwing Amalinze the Cat, a wrestler who was known for being undefeated for 7 years. Masculinity is something very important to him. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Okonkwo Valued Masculinity" essay for you Create order The importance of masculinity is shown towards the beginning of the book where Okonkwo insults a man by calling him a woman. This action of his shows how masculinity is valued when ranking people in Umuofia society. Karma eventually got to him after all his actions, such as beating people, masculinity and aggression became the reason he failed to continue be successful in society. Since Okonkwo valued masculinity, he believed in traditional gender roles. He had two children, a son and a daughter. He wanted his son to be aggressive just like him. Turns out, he was not. He was much more fond of his daughter because of his son’s lack of masculinity. So he wish she would have been a son. Okonkwo put a lot of pressure on his son to be more aggressive, but it don’t work, in fact that pressure changes him. Okonkwo put a lot of pressure on his son to be more aggressive because his own father wasn’t masculine or aggressive. His father, Unoka was lazy, he did not work. Okonkwo saw hard work as a masculine trait. He didn’t want to be like his father. His father’s laziness became the reason why he would work hard, he didn’t want to seem useless just like him. So he would constantly beat up his wives and children and work hard because it made him feel masculine, it also made people fear him. Nwoye struggles with masculinity am being aggressive, so as a result he gets beat by his father (Okonkwo). He was greatly affected by the violence and repels the violence in Umuofia rituals and ends up joining the Christians. He has this trait like his grandfather Unoka. One of Okonkwo’s uncles states â€Å" Its true that a child belongs to its father. But when a father beats his child it seeks sympathy in its Mothers Hut†. Although Nwoye knew that his father was right when it came to being masculine and violent, he still preferred the stories his mother would use to tell..†. Which clearly shows how important masculinity was to him. Okonkwo preferred to masculine, and make people fear Him rather than to show compassion. So as a result of how his father used to be, lazy, he decided to be a hard worker and be very violent towards women and children, which made him a very well-known person. He believed that men should be masculine, so since his son wasnt all that interested in being masculine he would beat him. His aggression ended up making him weak. Instead of dying a great leader as he was known in the beginning of the story he died in a disgraceful manner by committing suicide.

Conflicts in Work Place Free Essays

Conflicts management in work place OVERVIEW The purpose of this assignment is to critically analyze the conflicts in working place and try to understand organization behavior with respect to conflict effect. I also try to focus whether conflict is necessary or not by using range of theoretical perspectives and ideologies of conflict. INTRODUCTION: Conflicts are unpleasant, but it is a kind of force that ruling almost every aspect of our life. We will write a custom essay sample on Conflicts in Work Place or any similar topic only for you Order Now As time passes in every working relationship it is common to produce conflict (John Newstrom 2007, p. 253). Conflict can arise from various sources and directions but it can emerge in short duration of time among people of any level, and it may require proper management. Conflict can be constructive or destructive depending on ability of management. Hence managers should be aware of it and must know when and how to stimulate conflict in better way to resolve from it in time. Conflict is defined as â€Å"[.. a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something the first party cares about† (Huczynski Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Every organization has some sets of rules for its existence and to stay competent in the market and its survival as they desired. For this organization should be stable, always integrated, well coordinated, order and unanimity. As we know that organization is a place where peop le work together to achieve a common goal. But to attain the goal everyone has to struggle, cooperate, obey rules, and always communicate with each other to complete the given task in time. But history shows that many organization fallen because of these interpersonal relationships of the people are not productive, cooperative, and satisfying which directly effects the reputation of the organization and creates a big problem for its growth. Many people believe that organization is interfered with conflicts and many other factors such as disintegration, antagonism, frequent changes, and divided loyalties. But it is also seen that people believe conflicts are necessary to perform organization effectively. Let have a close look on conflict in organization and people point of view: WHY CONFLICT ARISE? In any situation conflict can arise between two or more parties when they think opposite and feel themselves in opposition. Conflict can arise due to many factors. For example: To achieve the goal in time different people apply different methods and techniques, but some time because of disagreement among the people due to different experience can produce the conflict. It is an interpersonal process; â€Å"conflicts also arise due to tack inter-dependence, policies, ambiguity of roles and rules, personality differences, ineffective communication, the competition over scarce resources, and underlying differences in attitudes, beliefs, and experiences† (Huczynski Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional; we can consider it constructive or destructive depending on its management. But important question is whether conflict is necessary or not for any organization? Levels of Conflict: In any working place conflict can be possible to occur within an employee, between individuals or groups, and across organizations as they compete. Sources of Conflict: Organizational change, Different sets of values, Threats to status, Contrasting perceptions, Lack of trust, personality clashes, and personality differences. IS CONFLICT NECESSARY EVIL OR NOT: From many decades, there has much debate that concerning whether conflict within the organization is necessary or not. Dean Tjosvold (2008) argued that conflict was inevitable aspect of all organizations; that properly conducted; it lead to a better understanding between individuals, as well as to better ways of working. Since conflict was essential to successful teamwork and organizational effectiveness, it should be welcomed and managed appropriately. In contrast, Carten De Dreu (2008) stated that conflict was always detrimental, and that the research support for the beneficial aspects of workplace conflict was weak. He said that conflict was beneficial in only a very few, specific situations; and that even in thes, it had negative consequences which outweighted the positive ones. He felt that organizations had to make efforts to manage conflict, not because it had positive effects but so as to minimize its negative ones† (BUCHANAN AND HUCZYNSKI, 2010). THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CONFLICT: According to traditional perceptive conflicts are negative and indicates something is wrong. It must be avoided or eliminate. The contemporary perspective describes conflict as inevitable. It describes that if conflicts are very high or low they have negative consequences which affect the performance of the organization. CONTRASTING VIEWS OF CONFLICT: It is found that there are three views of conflict: positive, negative and ‘balanced’. Positive view: This view consider conflict are positive in organizations, but if it is managed and Considered can be positive and they believe that if the conflict managed and resolution effectively many time we can see constructive outcomes. This helps them to think how they can adopt different process to do things and conflict resolution process is many time seen a stimulus for positive change in the organization. This view tells resolving conflict also help to adapt to changes and it is seen more acceptable (Coiser Dalton, 1990). Conflict help in decision making process; because it is nature and people have different opinions, thoughts, attitudes and values for any given situation which can be beneficial in making and choosing better idea and decision. ositive view of conflict help us to encourage to work in difference and it tell positive outcomes of conflicts are very beneficial to the organization, it may increase quality of work and personal satisfaction and also increases commitment and motivation to complete the task in time. Negative view: This view considers conflict as negative, it tells that conflict is dangerous and have serious negative effects and may diverts organization goals to achieve and also effect on out psychological wellbeing. This view express that conflict also affect ideas, created tension, increases stress and anxiety. And conflict may be detrimental to individual and group development over period of time. (Baron, R. A. and Richardson, S. R. , Human Aggression, 2nd edition (Plenum Press, New York, 1991). ) ‘Balanced’ view: This view of conflict some time preferable from a managerial perspective. In this approach sometime conflict are destructive and some time they are highly desirable and constructive. But managing conflict is essential for attaining the goal for any manager. TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT: Organization conflict has different definitions and perspectives from many years. One thought of school argued that, conflict must be avoided in order to run the organization effectively, without any malfunctioning within it. This thought called traditional view. Another thought of school argued that conflicts in any organization are natural and inevitable. According to this view conflict is not a evil, but it tells that management should have the ability for improving organizational effectiveness and efficiency. We called this thought behavioral view. Third thought is interactionist approach and it is most recent perspective. This thought of school argues that conflicts are positive and important for any organization. It tells that conflicts are absolutely necessary for improving organization effectiveness and efficiency. (Adapted from: Stephen R. Robbins, Managing Organization Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, 1974). ) THE TRADITIONAL VIEW: In this view, it is assumed that conflict is natural and very bad, it should be avoided and eliminate immediately. There will be always negative impact on organizational performance. And it is believed that organization cannot perform effectively, if the conflicts are not eliminated in time. According to this approach conflicts are harmful and must be avoided. Conflicts can cause violence, destruction, and some time irrationality problems. It is manager responsibility to identify the conflicts if any and try to eliminate it to get rid of problems. This traditional perspective prevailed the management and organizational lit during the late nineteenth century and continued to be mid – 1940s. The Behavioral View: In this behavioral view traditional approach was followed and it is argued that occurrence of conflicts are natural in organizations. But behavioralists argued that conflicts are inevitable they advocated accepting the conflict. The behavioral view explains that conflict cannot be eliminated and they believe that conflict may benefit organization performance. They believe conflicts are inevitable and must resolve in time. The view prevailed management and organization from the late 1940s through the mid-1970s. The Interactionist View: It is the current theoretical perspective on conflict, this approach encourages conflict and they believe that conflict is positive for any organization. In interactionists approach believe that conflict can help to make new ideas, improve intra group cohesiveness, because of different opinion and different experience it help in making better decision in time, and many benefits to the organization. Interactionists perspective encourage functional opposition and necessity of conflict for the effectiveness of the organization. In this view it not only focuses of conflict stimulation but also choose appropriate conflict resolution process by the management. And explains conflict management are the major responsibility for the managers. It is seen that many evidence suggests conflict is necessary and important in organization because it improves the quality of decision making. (Coiser Schwenk, 1990). Thus I think the major problem is not conflict itself, but the problem is how to manage the conflict in the organization. So we can expect conflict may be result functional or dysfunctional and any one of them have serious effect to achieve the goal in time of any organization. This functional conflict is helpful to nurture the individuals in the working place to improve the creativity, adaption and innovation of the organization. (Thomas, K. W. ‘Conflict and conflict management’, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, ed. M. D. Dunnette (Rand McNally, Chicago, 1976). ) Because of complacency some organizations are failure, but can be traced back to too much harmony. (Robbins, S. P. , Essentials of Organizational Behavior (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992). ) But in reality most organization try to eliminate any type of conflict because they think elimination of conflict solve the problem and perform organization effectively. But now we can see and argue that functional conflict should be encouraged and dysfunctional conflict should be discouraged. It has spent more than three decades by many researchers, scholar and behavioural scientist to analyze the affects of dysfunctional intergroup conflict in the people who experiences it(Sherif and Sherif, Groups in Harmony and Tension (Harper and Row, New York, 1953). ) -Within groups: it increases the group cohesiveness, able to emphasis on loyalty, rise in desired autocratic leadership and focus on activity; -Between groups: there will be distorted in perceptions, communication is not effective and some time negative stereotyping. View of Conflict can be better understood by different frame of references. Frame of reference: †It is describe as, a person’s perceptions and interpretations of events, and involve assumptions about reality, attitudes towards what is possible, and conventions regarding correct behavior† (Huczynski Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Contrasting frames of reference: It is seen that literature distinguishes four different frames of reference for conflict, based on differentiation made by Alan Fox. They are unitarist, pluralist, interactionist and radical (Fox, 1966, 1973). All these frames are different from each other but important thing is that none of these are right or wrong. Unitarist: In unitarist frame conflict is seen badly and they think that organizations should be essentially harmonious. Pluralist: In pluralist frame sees that groups in organization have their own interests and organization is collection of groups. Interactionist: This interactionist frame sees conflict as a positive, necessary force for effective performance of any organization; Radical: In radical frame sees conflict as an inevitable outcome of capitalism in any organization. To better understand conflict one should view it as dynamic rather than a static concept and the sequence of conflict stages can be seen as latent, perceived, felt, manifest and after math. (Pondy, L. R. , ‘Organizational conflict: concept and models’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 12 (1967). ) Conflict is inevitable in organizational life and its results can be constructive rather than destructive depending up on how it is managed. If negative effects controlled and can be minimized then positive outcomes may result. Effective conflict management is based in part, on a solid understanding of the different ways that conflict emerges and can be resolved. (Anderson, H. and Kyprianou. 1994. Effective Organizational Behaviour. edn. Oxford: Blackwell ) EFFECTS OF CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION Conflict in organization has some advantages and few disadvantages if it is not managed. In organization many participants think conflict should be avoided and they often see conflicts are always destructive and it should be eliminated. But in reality it is a limited view, because it is seen that all type of conflict are not destructive, some may result productive and some may nonproductive outcomes. But some participant views on conflicts is positive, they think conflict should be manage effectively and need to search the different ways to results the constructive outcome. Advantage: Conflict produces many benefits; first one, because of it people emotionally aroused with full potential to search and to find better approaches by comparing different approaches which may be useful for get better and desired results. It helps them to boost their creativity and improves their ability for developing new ideas. Thus helps them to experiment different way to achieve the goal. And second benefit is problem can be confronted and solved, so that conflict can be brought to the surface. Disadvantages: Conflict also produces disadvantages if it is not manages properly in time, and many leads to bad results. It also raises many problems like, people may focus on personal issues, they may not cooperate properly which increases stress and people may feel fear of defeating this directly reduces their confidence and motivation level. So it is very important to manage conflict in time. Manager should be aware of conflict and its outcomes and he should apply appropriate conflict resolution strategies, when they found conflict affecting to achieve the goal. Let us see some positive and negative outcome of conflict in working place: According to a survey, many practicing managers spend approximately 20 percent of their time to deal with conflict situation in working environment. Schmidt records some positive and negative outcomes of conflict. (NEWSTROM, W. 2007. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior at Work. 2Th edn. Singapore: McGraw-Hill/Irwin) Positive outcome include: ?Good generation of new ideas ?People try for different and new approaches ?Long-standing problems in any matter can be resolve ?Opportunities for individual views clarification ?It improves creativity and interest of participates ?It gives opportunities for individuals to test their abilities and capacities. Negative outcomes include: ?People fe el fear of defeating and demeaned manner ?Ineffective communication increases the distance between people ? Mistrust and suspicion among the people People concentrate on own interest rather than organization goal ? Reduction in cooperation which effect the teamwork ?And employee turnover increases. CONFLICT OUTCOMES: Conflict in organization may produce four possible outcomes depending on approaches chosen by participates involved. They are as follows: 1. lose-lose 2. Lose-win 3. Win-lose 4. Win-win Participant’s intentions and chosen strategies are the result of conflict outcomes. There are many different conflict resolution strategies developed in the history, but this different strategies designed for participate ntention. CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES: There are five possible conflict resolution strategies available, participant can select any strategy as he need and apply them to reduce/remove the conflict. By using appropriate strategy it is possible to achieve predict able outcome. These strategies are different from each other, they are basically representing different concerns for one’s own desired outcome and for another’s result. These five strategies are as follows: Avoiding- In this conflict is avoided physically and mentally, this approach expects less positive outcome and hence reflects a low concern for either party’s outcomes. Thus it results in lose – lose situation. Smoothing- In this strategy depending on the other party’s interests problems are accommodate. This strategy approach focuses on one’s own detriment by emphasizing on concerns for others which resulting in a lose-win outcome. Forcing- This strategy is depends on using power tactics to achieve the desired goal to win. It depends on authority and aggressiveness in order to attain personal goals at the expense of the concern for the other party. This type of strategy result in a win-lose situation. Compromising- This strategy help to compromise own desires and thought by giving up something to gain something else willingly. It results with no clear-cut outcome. Confronting- This is one kind of strategy which helps to focus conflict directly and solve it by mutual understanding to work it through to a satisfactory resolution. This strategy helps to maximize the chances of achieving both party goals which resulting in a win-win outcome. This strategies are effective can be chosen to win or lose by the participants. It helps to control the conflict and save the time to achieve the goal by reducing adverse harmful effects of conflicts. Avoiding and smoothing approaches are help to manage the conflict and the use of forcing approach may achieve short term goal but fail to achieve stated goal. Compromising approach help to solve conflict but always desired goals cannot be achieved. Confronting approach is the effective strategy which solve conflict problem by facing directly by mutual understanding, hence chance of win-win outcome is more when compare to any other strategy. CONCLUSION: Organization are dynamic entities, which is continously changing its internal and external environments, to develop congruousness among the people, process and structure. As discussed contemporary perspectives on conflict, tell that conflict cannot be put on end to a state in organizational life. Conflict is dynamic activity that help us to emphasize on process, meaning, and variety of procedures and relationships. I think understanding conflict help us to better understanding about organization if it is in. If there is a Conflict in any organization it help scholars and reasearchers to give insight understanding more about culture, power, change, development and other significant phenomenon in organization. Conflict may help to see the things in a new way, it help to promote different analysis, clarification in goals, increases energies, give chance for alternatives and changes, and complex problem can be solved. If conflict manage effectively it protect the organisation. Conflict enlighten the concept of rationality, which help better understanding and analyzing of organizational behavior. Organizational conflict are not evil, and in fact there is no need to eliminate it, but it should be manage properly for enhancing individuals, groups, and organizational effectiveness. It is a phenomenon, just it can be constructive or destructive effects on organization, but it completely depends on how it is managed by the management. Conflicts can be dysfunctional when people are not able to tolerate it, and the reason may be rigidity of the organization structure which gives fewer opportunities to changes. This may be because of ignorance of the participants who not give importance and ready to change any time when required. So we can say that organization conflict may be because of ignorance, intolerance, vested interests, intolerant and rigidity. As discussed earlier conflict is not necessarily a bad thing, it is can be seen as a ‘constructive’ force and in certain circumstances and it can be welcomed or even encouraged. It helps improving organization design and functioning and to the decision-making process which help to adapt internal and external changes. If conflict identified and managed properly, it can help reduce the destructive influences in the organization. Organization ducation in subjects like Human Relation, Human Resource Management or Development, and Industrial Relations tell that conflict can be managed and its management is very important. And literature tells that how acknowledgement of conflict and its significant in the organization. So we can say that all type of conflicts are not bad, and it is always not necessary to remove, left, or ignore the conflict in the org anizational life but it should be manage properly so that it help for survival of the organization without any effect on organization goals. Now I can say that conflict leads to change, change leads to adaptation, and adaptation leads to survival. REFERENCES: 1. ANDERSON KYPRIANOU. 1994. Effective Organizational Behaviour. edn. Oxford: Blackwell 2. BUCHANAN HUCZYNSKI. 2010. Organizational Behaviour. 7th edn. England: Pearson Education Ltd 3. BUTLER ROSE. 2011. Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. edn. London: CIPD House 4. CLEGG HARDY. 1999. Studying Organization: Theory method. 1st edn. London: SAGE 5. FINCHAM RHODES, 2005. Principles of Organizational Behaviour. 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press Inc. , New York 6. KATZ KAHN. 1966. The Social Psychology of Organizations. edn. USA: John Wiley Sons 7. MULLINS, J. 2010. Management Organisational Behaviour. 9th edn. England: Pearson Education Ltd 8. NEWSTROM DAVIS. 2002. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior At Work . 11th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin 9. NEWSTROM, W. 2007. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior at Work. 12Th edn. Singapore: McGraw-Hill/Irwin 10. ROBBINS, P. 1983. Organization Theory: The Structure and Design of Organisations. edn. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall How to cite Conflicts in Work Place, Papers

Conflicts in Work Place Free Essays

Conflicts management in work place OVERVIEW The purpose of this assignment is to critically analyze the conflicts in working place and try to understand organization behavior with respect to conflict effect. I also try to focus whether conflict is necessary or not by using range of theoretical perspectives and ideologies of conflict. INTRODUCTION: Conflicts are unpleasant, but it is a kind of force that ruling almost every aspect of our life. We will write a custom essay sample on Conflicts in Work Place or any similar topic only for you Order Now As time passes in every working relationship it is common to produce conflict (John Newstrom 2007, p. 253). Conflict can arise from various sources and directions but it can emerge in short duration of time among people of any level, and it may require proper management. Conflict can be constructive or destructive depending on ability of management. Hence managers should be aware of it and must know when and how to stimulate conflict in better way to resolve from it in time. Conflict is defined as â€Å"[.. a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something the first party cares about† (Huczynski Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Every organization has some sets of rules for its existence and to stay competent in the market and its survival as they desired. For this organization should be stable, always integrated, well coordinated, order and unanimity. As we know that organization is a place where peop le work together to achieve a common goal. But to attain the goal everyone has to struggle, cooperate, obey rules, and always communicate with each other to complete the given task in time. But history shows that many organization fallen because of these interpersonal relationships of the people are not productive, cooperative, and satisfying which directly effects the reputation of the organization and creates a big problem for its growth. Many people believe that organization is interfered with conflicts and many other factors such as disintegration, antagonism, frequent changes, and divided loyalties. But it is also seen that people believe conflicts are necessary to perform organization effectively. Let have a close look on conflict in organization and people point of view: WHY CONFLICT ARISE? In any situation conflict can arise between two or more parties when they think opposite and feel themselves in opposition. Conflict can arise due to many factors. For example: To achieve the goal in time different people apply different methods and techniques, but some time because of disagreement among the people due to different experience can produce the conflict. It is an interpersonal process; â€Å"conflicts also arise due to tack inter-dependence, policies, ambiguity of roles and rules, personality differences, ineffective communication, the competition over scarce resources, and underlying differences in attitudes, beliefs, and experiences† (Huczynski Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional; we can consider it constructive or destructive depending on its management. But important question is whether conflict is necessary or not for any organization? Levels of Conflict: In any working place conflict can be possible to occur within an employee, between individuals or groups, and across organizations as they compete. Sources of Conflict: Organizational change, Different sets of values, Threats to status, Contrasting perceptions, Lack of trust, personality clashes, and personality differences. IS CONFLICT NECESSARY EVIL OR NOT: From many decades, there has much debate that concerning whether conflict within the organization is necessary or not. Dean Tjosvold (2008) argued that conflict was inevitable aspect of all organizations; that properly conducted; it lead to a better understanding between individuals, as well as to better ways of working. Since conflict was essential to successful teamwork and organizational effectiveness, it should be welcomed and managed appropriately. In contrast, Carten De Dreu (2008) stated that conflict was always detrimental, and that the research support for the beneficial aspects of workplace conflict was weak. He said that conflict was beneficial in only a very few, specific situations; and that even in thes, it had negative consequences which outweighted the positive ones. He felt that organizations had to make efforts to manage conflict, not because it had positive effects but so as to minimize its negative ones† (BUCHANAN AND HUCZYNSKI, 2010). THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CONFLICT: According to traditional perceptive conflicts are negative and indicates something is wrong. It must be avoided or eliminate. The contemporary perspective describes conflict as inevitable. It describes that if conflicts are very high or low they have negative consequences which affect the performance of the organization. CONTRASTING VIEWS OF CONFLICT: It is found that there are three views of conflict: positive, negative and ‘balanced’. Positive view: This view consider conflict are positive in organizations, but if it is managed and Considered can be positive and they believe that if the conflict managed and resolution effectively many time we can see constructive outcomes. This helps them to think how they can adopt different process to do things and conflict resolution process is many time seen a stimulus for positive change in the organization. This view tells resolving conflict also help to adapt to changes and it is seen more acceptable (Coiser Dalton, 1990). Conflict help in decision making process; because it is nature and people have different opinions, thoughts, attitudes and values for any given situation which can be beneficial in making and choosing better idea and decision. ositive view of conflict help us to encourage to work in difference and it tell positive outcomes of conflicts are very beneficial to the organization, it may increase quality of work and personal satisfaction and also increases commitment and motivation to complete the task in time. Negative view: This view considers conflict as negative, it tells that conflict is dangerous and have serious negative effects and may diverts organization goals to achieve and also effect on out psychological wellbeing. This view express that conflict also affect ideas, created tension, increases stress and anxiety. And conflict may be detrimental to individual and group development over period of time. (Baron, R. A. and Richardson, S. R. , Human Aggression, 2nd edition (Plenum Press, New York, 1991). ) ‘Balanced’ view: This view of conflict some time preferable from a managerial perspective. In this approach sometime conflict are destructive and some time they are highly desirable and constructive. But managing conflict is essential for attaining the goal for any manager. TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT: Organization conflict has different definitions and perspectives from many years. One thought of school argued that, conflict must be avoided in order to run the organization effectively, without any malfunctioning within it. This thought called traditional view. Another thought of school argued that conflicts in any organization are natural and inevitable. According to this view conflict is not a evil, but it tells that management should have the ability for improving organizational effectiveness and efficiency. We called this thought behavioral view. Third thought is interactionist approach and it is most recent perspective. This thought of school argues that conflicts are positive and important for any organization. It tells that conflicts are absolutely necessary for improving organization effectiveness and efficiency. (Adapted from: Stephen R. Robbins, Managing Organization Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice-Hall, 1974). ) THE TRADITIONAL VIEW: In this view, it is assumed that conflict is natural and very bad, it should be avoided and eliminate immediately. There will be always negative impact on organizational performance. And it is believed that organization cannot perform effectively, if the conflicts are not eliminated in time. According to this approach conflicts are harmful and must be avoided. Conflicts can cause violence, destruction, and some time irrationality problems. It is manager responsibility to identify the conflicts if any and try to eliminate it to get rid of problems. This traditional perspective prevailed the management and organizational lit during the late nineteenth century and continued to be mid – 1940s. The Behavioral View: In this behavioral view traditional approach was followed and it is argued that occurrence of conflicts are natural in organizations. But behavioralists argued that conflicts are inevitable they advocated accepting the conflict. The behavioral view explains that conflict cannot be eliminated and they believe that conflict may benefit organization performance. They believe conflicts are inevitable and must resolve in time. The view prevailed management and organization from the late 1940s through the mid-1970s. The Interactionist View: It is the current theoretical perspective on conflict, this approach encourages conflict and they believe that conflict is positive for any organization. In interactionists approach believe that conflict can help to make new ideas, improve intra group cohesiveness, because of different opinion and different experience it help in making better decision in time, and many benefits to the organization. Interactionists perspective encourage functional opposition and necessity of conflict for the effectiveness of the organization. In this view it not only focuses of conflict stimulation but also choose appropriate conflict resolution process by the management. And explains conflict management are the major responsibility for the managers. It is seen that many evidence suggests conflict is necessary and important in organization because it improves the quality of decision making. (Coiser Schwenk, 1990). Thus I think the major problem is not conflict itself, but the problem is how to manage the conflict in the organization. So we can expect conflict may be result functional or dysfunctional and any one of them have serious effect to achieve the goal in time of any organization. This functional conflict is helpful to nurture the individuals in the working place to improve the creativity, adaption and innovation of the organization. (Thomas, K. W. ‘Conflict and conflict management’, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, ed. M. D. Dunnette (Rand McNally, Chicago, 1976). ) Because of complacency some organizations are failure, but can be traced back to too much harmony. (Robbins, S. P. , Essentials of Organizational Behavior (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992). ) But in reality most organization try to eliminate any type of conflict because they think elimination of conflict solve the problem and perform organization effectively. But now we can see and argue that functional conflict should be encouraged and dysfunctional conflict should be discouraged. It has spent more than three decades by many researchers, scholar and behavioural scientist to analyze the affects of dysfunctional intergroup conflict in the people who experiences it(Sherif and Sherif, Groups in Harmony and Tension (Harper and Row, New York, 1953). ) -Within groups: it increases the group cohesiveness, able to emphasis on loyalty, rise in desired autocratic leadership and focus on activity; -Between groups: there will be distorted in perceptions, communication is not effective and some time negative stereotyping. View of Conflict can be better understood by different frame of references. Frame of reference: †It is describe as, a person’s perceptions and interpretations of events, and involve assumptions about reality, attitudes towards what is possible, and conventions regarding correct behavior† (Huczynski Buchanan 2007, p. 661). Contrasting frames of reference: It is seen that literature distinguishes four different frames of reference for conflict, based on differentiation made by Alan Fox. They are unitarist, pluralist, interactionist and radical (Fox, 1966, 1973). All these frames are different from each other but important thing is that none of these are right or wrong. Unitarist: In unitarist frame conflict is seen badly and they think that organizations should be essentially harmonious. Pluralist: In pluralist frame sees that groups in organization have their own interests and organization is collection of groups. Interactionist: This interactionist frame sees conflict as a positive, necessary force for effective performance of any organization; Radical: In radical frame sees conflict as an inevitable outcome of capitalism in any organization. To better understand conflict one should view it as dynamic rather than a static concept and the sequence of conflict stages can be seen as latent, perceived, felt, manifest and after math. (Pondy, L. R. , ‘Organizational conflict: concept and models’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 12 (1967). ) Conflict is inevitable in organizational life and its results can be constructive rather than destructive depending up on how it is managed. If negative effects controlled and can be minimized then positive outcomes may result. Effective conflict management is based in part, on a solid understanding of the different ways that conflict emerges and can be resolved. (Anderson, H. and Kyprianou. 1994. Effective Organizational Behaviour. edn. Oxford: Blackwell ) EFFECTS OF CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION Conflict in organization has some advantages and few disadvantages if it is not managed. In organization many participants think conflict should be avoided and they often see conflicts are always destructive and it should be eliminated. But in reality it is a limited view, because it is seen that all type of conflict are not destructive, some may result productive and some may nonproductive outcomes. But some participant views on conflicts is positive, they think conflict should be manage effectively and need to search the different ways to results the constructive outcome. Advantage: Conflict produces many benefits; first one, because of it people emotionally aroused with full potential to search and to find better approaches by comparing different approaches which may be useful for get better and desired results. It helps them to boost their creativity and improves their ability for developing new ideas. Thus helps them to experiment different way to achieve the goal. And second benefit is problem can be confronted and solved, so that conflict can be brought to the surface. Disadvantages: Conflict also produces disadvantages if it is not manages properly in time, and many leads to bad results. It also raises many problems like, people may focus on personal issues, they may not cooperate properly which increases stress and people may feel fear of defeating this directly reduces their confidence and motivation level. So it is very important to manage conflict in time. Manager should be aware of conflict and its outcomes and he should apply appropriate conflict resolution strategies, when they found conflict affecting to achieve the goal. Let us see some positive and negative outcome of conflict in working place: According to a survey, many practicing managers spend approximately 20 percent of their time to deal with conflict situation in working environment. Schmidt records some positive and negative outcomes of conflict. (NEWSTROM, W. 2007. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior at Work. 2Th edn. Singapore: McGraw-Hill/Irwin) Positive outcome include: ?Good generation of new ideas ?People try for different and new approaches ?Long-standing problems in any matter can be resolve ?Opportunities for individual views clarification ?It improves creativity and interest of participates ?It gives opportunities for individuals to test their abilities and capacities. Negative outcomes include: ?People fe el fear of defeating and demeaned manner ?Ineffective communication increases the distance between people ? Mistrust and suspicion among the people People concentrate on own interest rather than organization goal ? Reduction in cooperation which effect the teamwork ?And employee turnover increases. CONFLICT OUTCOMES: Conflict in organization may produce four possible outcomes depending on approaches chosen by participates involved. They are as follows: 1. lose-lose 2. Lose-win 3. Win-lose 4. Win-win Participant’s intentions and chosen strategies are the result of conflict outcomes. There are many different conflict resolution strategies developed in the history, but this different strategies designed for participate ntention. CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES: There are five possible conflict resolution strategies available, participant can select any strategy as he need and apply them to reduce/remove the conflict. By using appropriate strategy it is possible to achieve predict able outcome. These strategies are different from each other, they are basically representing different concerns for one’s own desired outcome and for another’s result. These five strategies are as follows: Avoiding- In this conflict is avoided physically and mentally, this approach expects less positive outcome and hence reflects a low concern for either party’s outcomes. Thus it results in lose – lose situation. Smoothing- In this strategy depending on the other party’s interests problems are accommodate. This strategy approach focuses on one’s own detriment by emphasizing on concerns for others which resulting in a lose-win outcome. Forcing- This strategy is depends on using power tactics to achieve the desired goal to win. It depends on authority and aggressiveness in order to attain personal goals at the expense of the concern for the other party. This type of strategy result in a win-lose situation. Compromising- This strategy help to compromise own desires and thought by giving up something to gain something else willingly. It results with no clear-cut outcome. Confronting- This is one kind of strategy which helps to focus conflict directly and solve it by mutual understanding to work it through to a satisfactory resolution. This strategy helps to maximize the chances of achieving both party goals which resulting in a win-win outcome. This strategies are effective can be chosen to win or lose by the participants. It helps to control the conflict and save the time to achieve the goal by reducing adverse harmful effects of conflicts. Avoiding and smoothing approaches are help to manage the conflict and the use of forcing approach may achieve short term goal but fail to achieve stated goal. Compromising approach help to solve conflict but always desired goals cannot be achieved. Confronting approach is the effective strategy which solve conflict problem by facing directly by mutual understanding, hence chance of win-win outcome is more when compare to any other strategy. CONCLUSION: Organization are dynamic entities, which is continously changing its internal and external environments, to develop congruousness among the people, process and structure. As discussed contemporary perspectives on conflict, tell that conflict cannot be put on end to a state in organizational life. Conflict is dynamic activity that help us to emphasize on process, meaning, and variety of procedures and relationships. I think understanding conflict help us to better understanding about organization if it is in. If there is a Conflict in any organization it help scholars and reasearchers to give insight understanding more about culture, power, change, development and other significant phenomenon in organization. Conflict may help to see the things in a new way, it help to promote different analysis, clarification in goals, increases energies, give chance for alternatives and changes, and complex problem can be solved. If conflict manage effectively it protect the organisation. Conflict enlighten the concept of rationality, which help better understanding and analyzing of organizational behavior. Organizational conflict are not evil, and in fact there is no need to eliminate it, but it should be manage properly for enhancing individuals, groups, and organizational effectiveness. It is a phenomenon, just it can be constructive or destructive effects on organization, but it completely depends on how it is managed by the management. Conflicts can be dysfunctional when people are not able to tolerate it, and the reason may be rigidity of the organization structure which gives fewer opportunities to changes. This may be because of ignorance of the participants who not give importance and ready to change any time when required. So we can say that organization conflict may be because of ignorance, intolerance, vested interests, intolerant and rigidity. As discussed earlier conflict is not necessarily a bad thing, it is can be seen as a ‘constructive’ force and in certain circumstances and it can be welcomed or even encouraged. It helps improving organization design and functioning and to the decision-making process which help to adapt internal and external changes. If conflict identified and managed properly, it can help reduce the destructive influences in the organization. Organization ducation in subjects like Human Relation, Human Resource Management or Development, and Industrial Relations tell that conflict can be managed and its management is very important. And literature tells that how acknowledgement of conflict and its significant in the organization. So we can say that all type of conflicts are not bad, and it is always not necessary to remove, left, or ignore the conflict in the org anizational life but it should be manage properly so that it help for survival of the organization without any effect on organization goals. Now I can say that conflict leads to change, change leads to adaptation, and adaptation leads to survival. REFERENCES: 1. ANDERSON KYPRIANOU. 1994. Effective Organizational Behaviour. edn. Oxford: Blackwell 2. BUCHANAN HUCZYNSKI. 2010. Organizational Behaviour. 7th edn. England: Pearson Education Ltd 3. BUTLER ROSE. 2011. Introduction to Organisational Behaviour. edn. London: CIPD House 4. CLEGG HARDY. 1999. Studying Organization: Theory method. 1st edn. London: SAGE 5. FINCHAM RHODES, 2005. Principles of Organizational Behaviour. 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press Inc. , New York 6. KATZ KAHN. 1966. The Social Psychology of Organizations. edn. USA: John Wiley Sons 7. MULLINS, J. 2010. Management Organisational Behaviour. 9th edn. England: Pearson Education Ltd 8. NEWSTROM DAVIS. 2002. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior At Work . 11th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin 9. NEWSTROM, W. 2007. Organizational Behaviour: Human Behavior at Work. 12Th edn. Singapore: McGraw-Hill/Irwin 10. ROBBINS, P. 1983. Organization Theory: The Structure and Design of Organisations. edn. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall How to cite Conflicts in Work Place, Papers

Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada

Introduction The initial contact of Europeans with North America can to a large extent be credited to the 15th century explorer, Christopher Columbus. He discovered the North American continent and reported his findings to the king and Queen of Spain. His depiction of the land as possessing many riches and habouring a timid people no doubt contributed to the enthusiasm with which future voyages to these lands were made.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Over the course of the next four centuries beginning from the 15th century, many European nations were involved in widespread exploration of The North American continent. These expeditions resulted in significant changes in the local traditions as the new arrivals settled and traded with the natives. This new relationship between the North American natives and the Europeans led to an offsetting of the balance that had once existed among the people with far reaching consequences over the years. Brown and Sides note that this contact which began amicably as a trade relationship ended up with the destruction of the once powerful tribes of the Pequot, Narragansett, Mohicans and many other Native Northern American Tribes (1). Monumental changes occurred to the lives of the First nations of Canada as a result of their contact with Europeans. This paper shall set out to give a detailed description of the significant changes that arose as a result of this contact. This paper shall also investigate the means by which the traditions and cultures of the First Nations managed to survive despite the assault on them by the Europeans. The significance of a lack of writing traditions by the First Nations to the preservation of their history shall also be explored. It is hoped that this discussions shall lead to a greater understanding of the First Nations people and especially the significance of their encounter with the Europeans. First Nations Encounter with Europeans The Ojibway Historic Organization notes that the Ojibway and Lakota people are a part of a large linguistically related group of Native Americans and First Nation people who are collectively referred to as the â€Å"Algonquin† which loosely translates to â€Å"Family† (Ojibway Organization). These natives occupied the parts of Canada extending from Saskatchewan to Southern Ontario. The land was viewed by the First Nations as a gift form the Great Spirit and as such, the land belonged to every member of the tribe. The native inhabitants of the Northern American land came to be called â€Å"Indians† mostly as a result of the misclassification by the Spanish explorer, Christopher Columbus on his discovery of the New World.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The first Europeans to venture into the land of the Ojibway were the French explorers and missionaries. Schell documents that the French explorers and missionaries were the only Europeans acquainted with the wild regions of North America as many considered the land too wild and dreary at all seasons to be made a permanent home by the civilized men (162). This explorers and missionaries sent home reports of the huge great lone land that they had encountered. Due emphasis was placed on the abundance of a great variety of fur-bearing animals such as the bear, wolf and lynx. The great rivers and lakes which formed a natural highway into the more remote parts of the continent also made it easy for the early explorers, missionaries and traders alike to venture deeper into the American Indians native land (Schell 163). Result of First Nations Contact with Europeans Increased trade was one of the major outcomes of the interaction between the First Nation and the Europeans. The native tribes of the fa r north were a peaceful people and they were friendly towards the white traders with home they cane into contact with. The commercial relationship that was proposed was accepted wholeheartedly since it was perceived to be advantageous to the First Nation. The primary good that was desired by the Europeans was fur and to this end, fur companies were established by the Europeans which operated throughout the vast territory of North America. Schell records that the Hudson’s Bay Company based in London and the North West Fur Company of Montreal were the first European agencies established to exploit the trading opportunities afforded by the American continent. The new trade relationship between the Europeans and the First Nation people led to a reliance on foreign commodities by the Natives. More time was therefore dedicated to the securing of fur and its subsequent preparation for the new trade. This led to an erosion of other activities such as pottery making, basket weaving an d embroidery practices which had been an inherent part of life of the Ojibway and Lakota people (Ojebwe Organization) Inevitably, as the trade advanced, there arose a greater demand for the fur products by the Native tribes. On the other hand, the European traders who were made up of mostly French, Dutch and British nationals wished to have a greater share of the products from the Natives. The Europeans formed great companies to further their trade interests and ventured deeper into the Ojibway and Lakota people’s land as their sought trade commodities. The developing trade rivalries among the Europeans led to European groups allying themselves with different Indian groups so as to safeguard their business interests.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Europeans pressured their business â€Å"allies† to ve nture into new hunting territories so as to provide a steady supply of fur. This led to war among tribes as they competed for the dwindling fur-bearing animals. The European allies not only encouraged these wars but they also equipped their native friends with weapons to given them an advantage in the confrontations. As has been stated in this paper, among the early European visitors were missionaries. As was the norm, the primary objective of the missionaries was to spread the white man’s religion, Christianity, to the heathen natives. In the pre-contact years, the Indians did not practice any one major religion as a people. However, this did not mean that the people were godless as they believed in a creator and had their creation stories. Owing to the perception of the Native Indians as heathens, the Europeans set out to convert them into their Christian faith. This was to be followed by an initiation into the ways of the Europeans which was considered to be civilized as o pposed to the barbaric ways of the Natives. Missionaries engaged in the preaching of the gospel which resulted in the conversion of a significant number of the Native Americans (Schell 118). While conversion into Christianity did give the Natives some measure of dignity in the face of the Europeans, it did not lead to their being treated as equals as they were still exploited and their land taken over. From the very onset of the contact with the Europeans, the Natives of America were abducted and taken off to the lands of the Europeans as â€Å"specimen†. Columbus in his famous expeditions is said to have â€Å"kidnapped ten of his friendly Taino hosts and carried them off to Spain† (Brown and Sides 1). Here, it was hoped that the natives would be taught of the white man’s ways and especially his religion since they were observed to be a heathen tribe. While the initial contact with Europeans was a peaceful process, it gradually degenerated to untold violence as the Europeans demanded more from the First Nations. Of all the European nations that made contact with the First Nation, the Spaniards left an especially murderous legacy. The Spanish in their quest for gold and gems undertook indiscriminate raiding and plundering of the native’s villages. This led to the natives putting up fights for survival against the White man. Most of this fights turned out fatal for the First Nation as their weaponry was outmatched by the European guns. Brown and Sides suggest that the slow speed of communication between the Native tribes in North America was partly responsible for the ill effects of the encounter with Europeans since news of the barbarities of the Europeans did not reach other tribes from their neighbors’ in time (2).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result of this lack of communication, thousands of villages were destroyed and villagers exterminated. Their sites of worship were plundered and burnt and the people enslaved. To give a feeling of the effect that the confrontation in battle between the Europeans and the Native Americans, Brown and Sides cite Tecumseh who laments: Where today are the Pequot? Where are the Narragansett, the Mohican, the Pokanoket, and many other once powerful tribes of our people? They have vanished before the avarice and the oppression of the White Man, as snow before a summer sun. (1) Slavery was one of the darkest realities of the European contact. While slavery was operational among the Native Indians in the pre-contact years, it became rampant after the arrival of Europeans. In the pre-contact era, Slaves were mostly made up of captives taken in attacks upon enemies whereby the captives were brought to the home villages and used as laborers. The Indian slave trade increased enormously with t he European presence as Europeans undertook slave hunting expeditions or encouraged the Indians to raid their enemy tribes for captives. These captives would then be exchanged for goods such as whiskey, guns and clothes (Rodriguez 37). An increase in slavery had the effect of not only lowering the population of the Natives but also bringing about mistrust and fighting amongst natives, most of whom had coexisted peacefully before the contact with Europeans. This is because most tribes set out to arm themselves and later on conduct raids on their neighbors so as to sell them off to the Europeans. Despite the contact with Europeans leading to the raising of the standards of living for the North American natives in the initial years, this contact also led to large number of deaths due to diseases. These diseases were brought by the Europeans who surprisingly enough did not seem to succumb to the diseases as easily as the Natives did. As such, European infectious diseases such as measles , mumps and smallpox continued to take their toll on the Native Americans leading to large number of deaths (Francis 218). Thornton notes that: In any event, Native Americans lacked prior exposure to disease from Europe and Africa such as smallpox and measles which typically confer lifelong immunity on anyone who recovers from them. (21) It is theorized that these diseases were some of the factors that led to the relatively easy invasion of the First Nations by the Europeans since the disease led to a significant reduction of the Native population as well as the weakening of the spirit of the Natives leading to a resignation to their fate in the hands of the Europeans. Another feature that came about as a result of contact with the European is that the Aboriginal people of North America were deprived off their land. Oommen notes that the earliest settlers of the Northern America were gradually displaced from most of their ancestral territory and bundled off to reserves (95). The Fir st Nations resented this and put up spirited fights to try and defend their land. However, their efforts did not succeed since the Europeans were better armed. In the end, the Natives were striped off citizenry to their land and it was not until the early 20th century, approximately 500 years after contact, that the Aboriginals were granted citizenship in Canada and the USA. Survival of the First Nations Traditions and Culture In the pre-contact years, the First Nation people lived in relative isolation from one another over the great stretch of the land. Numerous bands undertook independent hunting expeditions and fishing trips since the land was peaceful. However, as a result of contact with the Europeans, large groups of Indian people grouped together and formed unions so as so strengthen their positions. In 1579, the Ojibway and Dokata people made an alliance so as to strengthen their position against the other Eastern tribes which were becoming powerful as a result of the guns and knives obtained from their trade with the Europeans. This change in the communal structure aided the survival of the First Nation and therefore the survival of their traditions and cultures which they continued to practice through the years. Another factor that has contributed to the preservation of the culture of the Ojibway and Lakota is the spirit of oneness that is engendered by the Aboriginal people. This view is best articulated by Thornton who suggests that â€Å"kinship might even be the essence of individual identity for Native Americans† (134). This kinship which places great emphasis on family and community is the bound that has held the Native Americans together through the years of turmoil in the hands of the Europeans. The First Nation tribes were kin to preserve their traditional ways of life even as the Europeans sought to convert them into their alleged civilized ways of life. The role that oral history and tradition has played in the preservation of the traditions and culture of the First Nations cannot be overstated. Since the First nation lacked the means to record their history, it is plausible that their culture and tradition would have been completely lost as they were uprooted from their Native homelands by the Europeans and forced to abandon their ways for the ways of the white man. However, despite these occurrences, the Natives continued to pass on the stories of their traditions to their children through generations. Crowshoe and Eagle who are modern day Native Americans confirm the power of oral tradition in preserving their culture by stating that â€Å"as we listen to our stories, speak our language, sing our songs, and participate in our traditional societies, we gain insight and extract the understanding we need to live well and keep our ways alive†. (Four Directions Teachings) Effects of Lack of Written Traditions by the First Nations The First Nations who form the Aboriginal groups within North America did n ot have a symbolic system of writing up until recent centuries. This implies that they had no method of documenting and preserving their own cultural history. The history of the Ojibway and Lakota was contained in their oral and traditional history. Oral history is made up of stories of significant events such as migration, wars and epidemics while oral tradition represents folklore that makes reference to legends, myths and stories held sacred by a people. Wilson notes that the Ojibway and Lakota history was contained both in the oral history and oral tradition (27). She further expounds that there was a clear understanding among the people of what passes for folklore and what was considered a historic truth. As a result of the lack of symbolic writing system by the First Nations, most of what is learned today about this people has been written by anthropologists. The lack of a written history by the First Nations has affected the level of knowledge that exists today. This is becau se most of the accounts given about the First Nations were from outsiders who did not understand the culture of the people and normally took events out of context or viewed them with bias. For example, there exist scattered references in historical records on the role of women in the Ojibway economy. Nichols notes that due to the frequency with which women engaged in hard and heavy work, some observes began to fashion an image of the Ojibway woman as a burden bearer and in essence a slave to men who were engaged in hunting, chiefhood and other flamboyant roles (30). While the assertions about the economic role of the women of the First Nations was right, the historical recording greatly distorts the status of women in the traditional culture. This was because the writer’s ideal of women stemmed from the privileged classes of Europe who were frail dependent people in need of male protection. Comparison between the content of this course and the Elder’s teachings The Fou r Direction Teachings is a website that is dedicated to the celebration of â€Å"indigenous oral traditions by honoring the process of listening with intent as each elder shares a teaching from their perspective† (Four Directions Teachings). This website places great emphasis on the oral traditions of the Aboriginals and tries to emulate the manner in which information was passed by the First nation. This course on Native-American Studies on the other hand places a greater emphasis on the work of anthropologists and historians who have documented the history of the Aboriginal people through the centuries. Owing to the differing bias between the teachings at the fourdirectionsteachings.com website and this course, there are similarities as well as differences from the content of the two. The Four Directions Teachings demonstrated that the Ojibway and Lakota people had an instructional approach for teaching their children through storytelling which encompassed methods of observ ation and direct involvement (Wilson 27). This is evident from the manner in which the narrator personalizes the story by using terms like â€Å"I’ve been told ever since I was a young girl by my parents†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Four Directions Teachings).The stories would therefore be expected to have differing versions depending on the teller. This is in contrast to the contents of this course which have been written in an objective manner. There is no personalization of events as each is told in a clearly objective manner. Another significant difference arises from the reasons that the teachings were given by the Aboriginal people. From the content of the stories, it is clear that a major role of the narratives was to enable people to attain and retain a good moral value that would then be passed on to subsequent generations. This is contrary to the contents of this course which are not aimed at propagating any moral teachings. Contrary to this, the contents of this course are aime d at providing a historically accurate depiction of the First Nations and their way of life. As such, the content of this course are devoid of any moral overtones that are the major characteristic of the stories that are present in the teachings of the elder’s website. For all their differences, there exist similarities between the elder’s teachings and this course’s contents. The fact that the Native Indians were a peaceful people who believed in the equality of all people and the spirit of brotherhood is a concept that is shared by both the content of this course and the Four Directions Teachings. This is contrasted with the European’s philosophy which emphasized the dominion of the white man over the world. As such, both sources record how the Indians welcomed the Europeans with hospitality as they would their own brothers. Conclusion This paper set out to give a detailed account of what resulted from the First Nations of Canada’s contact with t he European. The paper began by giving a brief overview of the First nation tribes so as to shed light to their ways of life in the pre-contact years. From the discussions presented herein, it is clear that the immediate result of contact between the Europeans and the First Nations was increased trade activities which resulted in abandoning of the First Nations previous ways of lives. However, it has been demonstrated that the results of this contact were mostly negative to the First Nations who not only lost their land but were also sold into slavery and exposed to diseases which led to the rapid decrease in their population. As a result of lack of a writing tradition by the Natives, the paper has highlighted how the history of their traditions has at times been misrepresented as a result of ignorance by the European historians. Despite the great atrocities that the Native Indians were subjected to, this paper has discussed the means by which the First Nations people were able to p reserve their culture and tradition to the present times. Today, these traditions and cultural ways remain unknown to most of the descendants of the great Native tribes of North America. However, their preservation has meant that the history of this people will never disappear as it would have if the Natives had failed to ensure its survival in the earlier years. While it cannot be disputed that most of the contact with the Europeans led to great wrongs against the First Nation, it was this interaction that led to the formation of the formation of the great North American nations of Canada and the USA. Works Cited Brown Dee and Sides Hampton. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: The Illustrated Edition: An Indian History of the American West. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009. Four Directions Teachings. Aboriginal Online Teaching and Resource Center. 2006. Web. http://fourdirectionsteachings.com/transcripts.html Francis, R. et al. Journeys: A History of Canada. Cengage Learning, 200 9. Nicholas, Rogers. The American Indian: past and present. VNR AG, 1986. Ojebwe Organization. More Ojibwe History. 2010. Web. http://www.ojibwe.org/home/pdf/More_Ojibwe_History_Summary.pdf Oommen, T. Citizenship, Nationality, and Ethnicity: Reconciling Competing Identities. Wiley-Blackwell, 1997. Schell, J. In the Ojibway Country: A Story of Early Missions on the Minnesota Frontier. Read Books, 2008. Thornton, Russell. Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects. Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1998. Wilson, W. Remember This! Dakota Decolonization and the Eli Taylor Narratives. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005. This essay on Result of the First Nations Contact with Europeans in Canada was written and submitted by user Dangelo Ryan to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Daeodon (Dinohyus) - Facts and Figures

Daeodon (Dinohyus) - Facts and Figures Name: Daeodon; pronounced DIE-oh-don; also known as Dinohyus (Greek for terrible pig) Habitat: Plains of North America Historical Epoch: Miocene (23-5 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 12 feet long and one ton Diet: Omnivorous Distinguishing Characteristics: Large size; quadrupedal posture; long, narrow head with bony warts    About Daeodon (Dinohyus) Chalk up another cool name thats been lost to the technicalities of science: the giant prehistoric porker formerly, and fittingly, known as Dinohyus (Greek for terrible pig) has now reverted back to an earlier moniker, the far less awesome Daeodon. Tipping the scales at a full ton, this Miocene pig was roughly the size and weight of a modern rhinoceros or hippopotamus, with a broad, flat, warthog-like face complete with warts (actually fleshy wattles supported by bone). As you might already have guessed, Daedon was closely related to the slightly earlier (and slightly smaller) Entelodon, also known as the Killer Pig, both of these genera  huge, opportunistic, omnivorous mammalian megafauna, the former native to North America and the latter to Eurasia. One odd feature of Daeodon was its nostrils, which were splayed out toward the sides of its head, rather than facing forwards as in modern pigs. One possible explanation for this arrangement is that Daeodon was a hyena-like scavenger rather than an active hunter, and needed to pick up scents from as wide a range as possible in order to home in on already-dead and rotting carcasses. Daeodon was also equipped with heavy, bone-crushing jaws, another classic scavenging adaptation similar to that of roughly contemporary bone-crushing canids, and its sheer one-ton bulk would have intimidated smaller predators from trying to protect their newly killed prey.

All About Gargoyles and How to Use Them

All About Gargoyles and How to Use Them A gargoyle is a waterspout, usually carved to resemble an odd or monstrous creature, that protrudes from a structures wall or roofline. By definition, a real gargoyle has a function- to throw rainwater away from a building. The word gargoyle is from the Greek gargarizein meaning to wash the throat. The word gargle comes from the same Greek derivation- so think of yourself as a gargoyle when you swish your mouth, gurgling and gargling with your mouthwash. In fact, the word spelled as gurgoyle was commonly used in the 19th century, most notably by British author Thomas Hardy in Chapter 46 of Far From the Madding Crowd (1874). The function of a gargoyle is to spit out excess water, but why it looks the way it does is another story. Legend has it that a dragon-like creature named La Gargouille terrorized the people of Rouen, France. In the seventh century A.D., a local cleric named Romanus used Christian symbolism to neutralize La Gargouilles threat to the townspeople- its said that Romanus destroyed the beast with the sign of the cross. Many early Christians were led to their religion by the fear of the gargoyle, a symbol of Satan. The Christian church became a protective haven for the mostly illiterate people. Romanus knew the legends that the townspeople of Rouen did not know. The oldest gargoyles have been found in present-day Egypt from the Fifth Dynasty, c. 2400 B.C. The functional and practical waterspout has also been found in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Gargoyles in the shape of dragons are found in Chinas Forbidden City and imperial tombs from the Ming Dynasty. Medieval and Modern Gargoyles Waterspouts became more ornate toward the end of the Romanesque architectural period. The Middle Ages was a time of Christian pilgrimage, often with the pillaging of sacred relics. Sometimes cathedrals were specially built to house and protect sacred bones, such as those of Saint-Lazare dAutun in France. Protective animal gargoyles, in the shape of pigs and dogs, are not only waterspouts but act as symbolic protection at the 12th century Cathà ©drale Saint-Lazare dAutun. The mythical Greek chimera became a popular figure stonemasons used as gargoyles. The sculpting of the functional gargoyle became especially popular in the Gothic building boom across Europe, so gargoyles have come to be associated with this architectural era. French architect Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) extended this association to Gothic-Revival as he creatively restored the Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral with many of the famous gargoyles and grotesques seen today. Gargoyles can also be found on American Gothic Revival buildings such as the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. In the 20th century, Art Deco style gargoyles can be seen atop the 1930 Chrysler Building, a well-known skyscraper in New York City. These more modern gargoyles are made of metal and look like heads of American eagles- protrusions that have been called hood ornaments by some enthusiasts. By the 20th century, gargoyle functionality as waterspouts had evaporated even if the tradition lived on. Disney Gargoyles Cartoon Between 1994 and 1997, Walt Disney Television Animation produced a well-received cartoon called Gargoyles. The main character, Goliath, says things like It is the gargoyle way, but dont let him fool you. Real gargoyles dont come alive after dark. In 2004, ten years after the first episode aired, DVDs of the animations were released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. To a certain generation, this series is a remembrance of things past. Grotesques As the functional waterspout aspect of gargoyles diminished, the creatively monstrous sculpting grew. What is called a gargoyle may also be called a grotesquery, meaning that it is grotesque. These grotesque sculptures can suggest monkeys, devils, dragons, lions, griffins, humans, or any other creature. Language purists may reserve the word gargoyle only for the objects that serve the practical purpose of directing rainwater from the roof. Care and Maintenance of Gargoyles and Grotesques Because gargoyles are by definition on the exterior of buildings, they are subject to natural elements- especially water. As slender, sculpted protrusions, their deterioration is imminent. Most of the gargoyles we see today are reproductions. In fact, in 2012 the Duomo in Milan, Italy created an Adopt a Gargoyle campaign to help pay for upkeep and restoration- which makes a lovely gift for the person who has everything. Source: Gargoyle entry by Lisa A. Reilly, The Dictionary of Art, Vol 12, Jane Turner, ed., Grove, 1996, pp. 149-150